Suchergebnisse

Danmark har nogle af de mest restriktive statsborgerskabsregler i Europa med krav om blandt andet langt ophold, sprog, viden, selvforsørgelse og kriminalitet. Statsborgerskab giver stemme- og opstillingsret til nationale valg og er dermed forudsætningen for fuld demokratisk inklusion. I dag står godt 376.000 voksne indbyggere uden statsborgerskab. På baggrund af registerdata undersøger vi, hvorvidt flygtninge, som indvandrede som voksne mellem 2001 og 2009, har kunnet opfylde kravene til sprog, selvforsørgelse og kriminalitet. Vi undersøger, hvilke krav der er mest ekskluderende, og hvor stor en forskel det ville gøre, hvis kravene lempedes. Herudover undersøges, hvor mange danske statsborgere med dansk oprindelse faktisk kan leve op til de gældende krav. Med det som udgangspunkt diskuterer vi kravenes implikationer for det danske demokrati, og hvorvidt det svarer til normative forestillinger om fairness.

Begrebet "distribueret ledelse", som betegner et ledelsesfænomen, hvor medarbejderne og den formelle ledelse deles om ledelsesopgaverne med henblik på at påvirke ressourcer, beslutninger og mål i en organisation, har i stigende grad tiltrukket sig opmærksomhed indenfor forskningen i organisationspsykologi og generisk ledelsesteori. Denne artikel introducerer begrebet til den offentlige ledelseslitteratur samt undersøger dets empiriske relevans for forskellige organisatoriske performancemål. Under anvendelse af registerdata samt spørgeskemadata indsamlet på et af landets største hospitaler, viser artiklen, at hospitalsafdelinger med høj grad af distribueret ledelse også har mere tilfredse og innovative medarbejdere samt medarbejdere, der rapporterer højere individuel performance. Resultaterne tyder desuden på, at distribueret ledelse også er relateret til lavere sygefravær blandt de hospitalsansatte. Disse sammenhænge indikerer, at distribueret ledelse er et relevant fænomen for offentlige ledere og for forskningen i offentlig ledelse.

Research on leadership emergence has mainly focused on adulthood and relied on retrospective accounts of childhood factors. Based on a prospective cohort study of 7719 boys born in 1953, of which 5928 were later drafted, we explored individual differences in leadership emergence in childhood and early adulthood. The data set consisted of register data from different time points and a survey of the cohort in the 6th grade. As expected, cognitive ability, tallness and muscular power were decisive for assessment of military officer suitability. However, we also found a moderate to strong impact on this assessment score from social class, leadership aspirations in childhood, birth order, self-regulatory skills in school, parental support, and previous participation in extracurricular activities. Similarly, social class, cognitive ability, developmental experiences, and birth order were important for nominations as class party organizer in the 6th grade. Delay of gratification was not associated with these nominations at all and was neutralized by cognitive ability in relation to officer suitability. The results strongly support a life-cycle approach to leadership emergence.

Denne artikel beskæftiger sig med den generelle udvikling i den sociale rekruttering til de videregående uddannelser i Danmark de sidste 30 år og sætter særlig fokus på, hvilke sociale grupper velfærdsprofessionerne rekrutterer fra, sammenlignet med øvrige videregående uddannelser. Velfærdsprofessionerne er interessante, fordi de indtager en central rolle i forhold til at opretholde vitale funktioner i velfærdssamfundet. De seneste år har været præget af en debat om, hvorvidt disse semiprofessioner har oplevet et relativt statustab set i forhold til de øvrige videregående uddannelser. Vi undersøger ændringer i adgangen til velfærdsprofessionsuddannelserne og de øvrige videregående uddannelser gennem en række statistiske modeller på baggrund af registerdata fra perioden 1989-2011. Vi finder, at den sociale ulighed, eller sociale selektivitet, i adgangen til videregående uddannelser generelt er mindsket over årene, men primært i de perioder hvor uddannelserne ekspanderer. Vi finder videre, at den sociale selektivitet i udgangspunktet er ganske forskellig afhængig af, om vi betragter de selektive lange videregående uddannelser eller de mindre selektive velfærdsprofessionsuddannelser (hvor pædagoguddannelsen er den mindst selektive af de fire behandlede velfærdsprofessionsuddannelser).


ENGELSK ABSTRACT:

Jens Peter Thomsen, Siri Dencker and Thomas Mørch Pedersen: Changes in Access to Higher Education and Welfare Professional Educations in Denmark 1989-2011

In this paper we examine the social backgrounds of the individuals enrolled in welfare professional educations in Denmark. We ask if there have been significant changes in enrollments in these educations relative to other higher educations during the past 30 years? Can we find evidence of a purported status loss of these professional educations relative to other professions? This paper addresses these questions by applying various regression models using Danish register data from 1989 to 2011. It is shown that: 1. Social inequality in access to higher education has been on the decline during 1989-2011, but only in times of educational expansion. 2. Social selectivity in access to welfare professional educations differs, all of these educations being significantly less selective than university education.

Key words: Inequality in access to higher education by social origin, educational expansion, higher education programmes, access to welfare professional programmes.

Denne artikel beskæftiger sig med social ulighed på lange videregående uddannelser i Danmark. Ved at betragte de interne forskelle i det danske universitetsfelt undersøges omfanget og karakteren af den sociale differentiering på de lange videregående uddannelser. For at forstå disse sociale differentieringsprocesser anlægges et henholdsvis makro- og mikrosociologisk perspektiv på betydningen af social klasse og kulturel praksis på uddannelserne, og der stilles det overordnede spørgsmål: Hvad er sammenhængen mellem unges valg af videregående uddannelse, deres sociale oprindelse og de kulturelle praktikker på de forskellige videregående uddannelser? Empirien udgøres af såvel registerdata som af feltarbejde på tre udvalgte universitetsuddannelser, og der bruges følgelig såvel kvantitative som kvalitative metoder. Analysen af universitetsfeltet viser at der er meget stor forskel på de forskellige uddannelsers sociale profil, at der er en tydelig klassestruktur i det danske universitetsfelt, at den kulturelle praksis der kendetegner udvalgte uddannelser kan forstås meningsfuldt i sammenhæng med denne klassestruktur, og endelig at det kræver bestemte forudsætninger at mestre kulturen på de forskellige uddannelser.

Søgeord: Social differentiering, social klasse, videregående uddannelser, universitetsstuderende, uddannelseskultur, uddannelsesvalg.

ENGELSK ABSTRACT:
Jens Peter Thomsen: Social Class and Culture in Danish Universities
In this article I address the question of social inequality in higher education. By looking at the horizontal stratification in the Danish university field I examine the extent and nature of the processes of social differentiation within the different university programs. In order to understand the processes of differentiation, a macro- and micro-sociological perspective on the significance of social class and cultural practice in the university programs is applied. The main question is: What is the relationship between young people's choice of university program, social class origin and the cultural practices in the different university programs? National register data as well as fieldwork carried out in three different university programs make up the empirical basis of the research, and both quantitative and qualitative methods are applied. The analysis of the university field shows that: A) The university field is highly structured by social class, B) there are great differences in the class characteristics of the student body in the different programs, C) the class structure in the university field is closely related to the cultural practices characterizing specific programs, and finally, D) that students from certain social backgrounds are better prepared than other students for the practical mastery of these cultural practices.

Key words: Higher education, social class, horizontal stratification, university students, educational cultures, choice of higher education.

Dit promotieonderzoek analyseert de economische gevolgen van de regelgeving van energie- en CO¬2 –markten in de EU. Hypotheses afgeleid uit de rechtseconomie, in het bijzonder de eigendomsrechten theorie, zijn in drie EU-brede empirische studies getest. In hoofdlijnen zijn de bevindingen als volgt: 1) Aandeelhouders waarderen het Europese emissierechten systeem (het 'EU ETS') als een beperking op vervuiling. Aanbevolen is dat de CO¬2-markt vaker signalen moet ontvangen over de schaarste in het EU ETS. Dit is mogelijk door bedrijven vaker hun emissierechten in te laten leveren. 2) Hoewel grote bedrijven beter in staat zijn om binnen bedrijfsgrenzen hun emissierechten gebruik te optimaliseren, maken ze juist intensiever gebruik van de CO¬2-markt dan kleine bedrijven. Deze bevinding bekrachtigt dat voor deze bedrijven het EU ETS kostenbesparingen heeft gerealiseerd. 3) De wettelijke bevoegdheden van Nationale Regulerende Instanties liggen niet eenduidig op één lijn met de beleidsdoelstellingen op de energiemarkten waar ze toezicht op houden. Aanbevolen is een gewijzigde inzet van deze bevoegdheden voor deze beleidsdoelstellingen, en een evenwichtigere verdeling van de zwaarte van deze bevoegdheden. Ook het EU ETS register wordt bediscussieerd, welke tevens de voornaamste databron is voor de eerste twee empirische studies. De onderdelen die de registerdata niet consistent of onvolledig beschikbaar maken worden benadrukt, en de onderdelen die een eenduidige identificatie verhinderden van de bedrijven die uiteindelijk eigenaar zijn van deze EU emissierechten. Aanbevelingen worden verschaft om de structuur van het EU ETS register te verbeteren. ; This Ph.D. research focuses on the economic effects of energy and carbon market regulations in the EU. Hypotheses derived from Law and Economics, in particular property rights theory, are tested via three EU-wide empirical studies. The overall results are the following: 1) The EU Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) is valued by investors as restricting pollution. Recommended is that the carbon market should more often receive signals on the scarcity in the EU ETS. This can be realized by having more moments during the year when firms need to surrender their emission allowances. 2) While large firms should be better able to optimize their usage of emission allowances within firm boundaries, they actually made more use of the carbon market than smaller firms do. This finding affirms that the EU ETS leads to cost savings for these firms. 3) The legal competences of National Regulatory Authorities are not aligned to the realizations of energy policy objectives in the energy markets they supervise. Recommended is a readjustment of these competences towards the policy objectives, in addition to a readjustment of the intrusiveness of these competences. The EU ETS registry is also discussed, which is, in fact, the key data source for the first two empirical studies. The elements which can render the registry data incomplete and unequivocal are highlighted, and those which hindered an effective identification of the firms owning the EU allowances. Suggestions are provided for improvements of this registry structure.

In this report, we present the main findings from the project, "Assistance or barriers? – The use of education as vocational rehabilitation for young people with disabilities". Chapter 1 gives a summary of the status of knowledge regarding young people with disabilities and their transition into the labor marked. We also present an overview of the most important measures initiated by the government to increase labor marked participation for this group. In January 2004, the rules regulating who were entitled to economic support for educational purposes within a rehabilitation program changed. In chapter 2, we look into the effects of these changes. We use data covering everyone in a certain age group who were granted education as vocational rehabilitation in the years between 2002 and 2005. The analysis indicates that the changes may have resulted in both fewer young people receiving economic support for education as vocational rehabilitation, and fewer young people with disabilities entering the labor force. Chapter 3 addresses a particular group, namely young people (25-35 years) with physical disabilities, mainly defined as cerebral palsy and spina bifida. Two of the topics discussed are: The educational situation for youth with physical disabilities compared to a randomly selected population in the same age group. To what extent is the length of education for young people with physical disabilities important for their situation in the labor marked? As much as 64 percent of the sample with physical disabilities have primary school as their highest level of education, compared with 17 percent in a randomly selected youth population. The level of employment for the group with a physical disability was 38 percent, compared with 86 percent for the randomly selected group. There is a clear indication that an increase in the level of education may have a particularly positive effect for young people with physical disabilities in relation to labor marked participation. In Chapter 4, the topic is of how social workers in NAV administer the regulations that govern access to education as rehabilitation. We start with a brief review of the rule changes in rehabilitation support that was introduced from January 2004. The chapter is based on qualitative interviews with 30 caseworkers in NAV (The Norwegian Labor and Welfare Administration). There is a political ambition that in general young people (under 26 years) shall finance their own education through loans and grants provided by the Norwegian State Educational Loan Fund. This is also true for young people with disabilities, when they do not have so significant impairments that they fall within the exemption criteria. Many of the informants share this point of view. They find it unreasonable and unfair to other young people if young people with disabilities receive economic support to pay for their educational expenses. They should not have any "special advantages" even if they are disabled. Chapter 5 addresses the issues of judgment and discrimination, and discusses what discretion is and how the caseworkers in NAV practice it. Among other things, it is discussed how the use of discretion can be affected by factors "outside the formal rules and regulations". In chapter 6, the perspective moves a notch up. Instead of questioning the issue if all young people with disabilities get the same or an equivalent treatment in the NAV system, we look at the situation for disabled young people compared to the situation for other young people. Using the ideas of justice developed by Amartya Sen, in particular the capability approach, we ask if is fair that young people with disabilities as a rule should finance their education themselves? One of the reasons for asking this question is that young people with disabilities cannot expect to achieve the same life-cycle income as others. ; Unge med nedsatt funksjonsevne har en lavere deltagelse på arbeidsmarkedet enn befolkningen ellers. I rapporten benyttes to sett registerdata for å belyse dette temaet. Videre benyttes intervjuer med saksbehandlere i NAV for å belyse forvaltningen av dagens regelverk for støtte til utdanning. Den første registerstudien indikerer at reduksjonen i støtte til utdanning fra 2004 reduserte antallet som fikk støtte til utdanning. Færre ble også yrkesaktive. Den andre registerstudien viser at et flertall unge med en fysisk funksjonsnedsettelse bare har grunnskole som høyeste fullførte utdanning, og at en stor del faller utenfor arbeidsmarkedet. I den kvalitative undersøkelsen sier mange saksbehandlere at de forvalter det nye regelverket slik at de sjeldnere enn før benytter utdanning som tiltak.

This report concludes the PopAge project (Population ageing and long-term care: the family-welfare state balance revisited), financed by the Norwegian Research Council, and carried out in 2009–2011 at NOVA. Ageing of the population changes in a fundamental way the balance between generations in the family as well as in the welfare state. The primary objective of the project was to build new knowledge about the changing role of the family and the welfare state in current Norwegian long-term care systems, and to evaluate the risk for increasing social inequalities in response to population ageing. Secondary, more specific objectives were, to explore the needs, motivations and barriers for family care, to describe the character and consequences of different mixes of formal and informal care, and to inform policies that may support a fair distribution of public long-term care resources. The report is organised in four sections. Part I (Chapter 1) introduces the project and research questions, and describes basic perspectives, data and methodologies. Part II provides a macro perspective on long-term care in four chapters. Chapter 2 summarizes current knowledge about population ageing, including the assessment of health among future elders: Do we live longer in good health, or in poor health? So far, research indicates support for the dynamic equilibrium hypothesis, implying longer lives with disease. But care needs are postponed to a later – and shorter – period of late life. Chapter 3 describes the position of elders in the welfare state in general, and in long-term care in particular, and what is to be expected in the coming years. Estimates vary considerably; hence there is considerable uncertainty in projections. According to a medium alternative, total expenses (and employment) in long-term care is expected to double over the next forty years, but will yet stay within a limit of around four per cent of GDP. Chapter 4 outlines the development of long-term care services since the 1960s. Norway is among the countries with the most generous access to public services, but services have leveled off, and even declined the later years. De-institutionalization characterises care for younger clients, whereas institutional care (nursing homes) is still dominant in elder care. Services are mainly public, provided by local governments, but increasingly subject to a contracting out policy. Chapter 5 analyses local variations in long-term care, which is considerable between the 430 Norwegian municipalities, not only in volume, but also in profile of services. The smaller municipalities have in general the higher volume of services, partly because needs are larger, and partly because of more generous state subsidies. Part III includes four chapters with analyses of health, family networks, and care exchanges based in a large, nationally representative survey. Chapter 6 describes how family networks, and needs, vary over the life course, including the risk of being squeezed between obligations towards young children and old parents. Chapter 7 analyses help relationships – the role of families, and the welfare state for care of older (parents) and younger persons in need. The family and welfare state balance in elder care is estimated to around 50–50, but the welfare state (public services) dominates when nursing care is needed, primarily because elders with extensive needs sooner or later move into assisted housing or a nursing home. Chapter 8 describes the pathways to the nursing home via qualitative interview with the primary family carer of a number of elders who have recently been institutionalized. These pathways are quite different, gradual and acute, short-term and long-term, but common for all of them is a period in hospital prior to the nursing home. Norms and preferences for care are discussed in chapter 9. Norwegian attitudes about the role of families and the welfare state are compared to attitudes in other countries, indicating that family norms are less strict, and the belief in the welfare state more strong, in Norway than in countries further south and east on the European continent. Elder care is in Norway seen as a welfare state responsibility, but supplemented with family care. Other countries tend to leave the main responsibility with the family. The final Part IV adds comparative perspectives (Chapter 10), and concludes the report with a discussion about sustainable care (Chapter 11). The Nordic model is expensive, and need support from a trust in government and a willingness to pay taxes. The continental model is hard to reconcile with modern family life and equal opportunities for women and men. Population ageing indicates a need for larger investments in the welfare state, but moderately so in Norway compared to many other countries, where ageing is more radical and current services less available. There is likely a limit for what a country can spend on «social issues», but we are hardly there yet. A sustainable care system need both the family and the welfare state, but families can hardly shoulder more than today when populations get older. The solution lies therefore mainly in the welfare state, and is not primarily a question of resources, but of solidarity. ; Aldringen av befolkningen endrer balansen mellom generasjonene og forutsetningene for en bærekraftig omsorg. Rapporten kartlegger behov og omsorg over livsløpet, utviklingen av omsorgstjenestene, variasjonen mellom kommunene, idealer og realiteter i dagens situasjon og dilemmaer for årene framover. Rapporten avrunder prosjektet «Aldringen av befolkningen og ansvarsdelingen mellom familien og velferdsstaten», som ble finansiert av program for Helse- og omsorgstjenester ved Norges forskningsråd og gjennomført ved NOVA med bidrag fra Statistisk sentralbyrå. Flere datakilder og metoder er anvendt, dels surveydata fra de to store livsløpsundersøkelsene ved NOVA: NorLAG og LOGG, og dels registerdata fra Statistisk sentralbyrås databaser for kommunene (KOSTRA) og brukerne av omsorgstjenester (IPLOS), og supplert med kvalitative intervjuer.

Hushållens bidrag av tvättvatten från textiltvätt till de kommunala avloppsreningsverken uppskattas till ca 2% av det totala volymflödet. Registerdata över kemikalier som används vid tillverkning av textilier/kläder samt analyser av tvättvatten visar att textilfibrer, mikroplastfibrer och många miljöstörande ämnen når våra reningsverk via textiltvätt. Dessa fibrer och kemiska ämnen kan bidra till förorening av avloppsreningsslam som används för gödsling av åkermark eller av vattenmiljö nedströms reningsverken. Ett av Sveriges miljömål är En Giftfri Miljö och dess delmål innefattar bl.a. information om farliga ämnen i varor (Ds 2012:23). Textilier är en av de varugrupper som Miljömålberedningen föreslagit (SOU 2012:38) bli föremål för ett regeringsuppdrag avseende innehåll av farliga ämnen och riskbegränsande åtgärder samt frivillig miljömärkning. I det svenska miljömålsystemet ingår också generationsmål om att materialkretsloppen skall vara så fria från farliga ämnen som möjligt och att våra konsumtionsmönster av varor ska ge så små hälso- och miljöproblem som möjligt även i varornas tillverkningsländer utanför Sverige. Generationsmålet innebär att svensk politik behöver ta hänsyn till den miljö- och hälsopåverkan som svensk konsumtion orsakar i andra länder. EU:s ramdirektiv för avfall (2008/96/EG) har vidare slagit fast en avfallshierarki som sätter återanvändning av uttjänta varor, t. ex. kläder, före materialåtervinning av avfall. Syfte Syftet med denna studie var att undersöka i vilken utsträckning som vattentvätt av fem klädtyper (t-tröjor av bomull med plasttryck, bomullsjeans, arbetsbyxor, fleecetröjor samt allvädersjackor) bidrar till förekomsten av miljögifter i slam samt i utgående vatten från representativt utvalda svenska reningsverk. Utförande Kläder av fem olika klädtyper, enligt specifikation från naturvårdsverket (baserat på en tidigare studie av Swerea) köptes in från affärer i Umeå under januari 2014. Det var 8 st t-tröjor av bomull med plasttryck, 3 st bomullsjeans, 2 st arbetsbyxor, 8 st fleecetröjor samt 3 st allvädersjackor. Kläderna tvättades i en vanlig tvättmaskin 2 gånger efter varandra utan att torka mellan och allt tvättvatten samlades upp. Delprov av tvättvattnet togs ut och analyserades för 126 utvalda ämnena på tre olika laboratorier (Miljökemiska Laboratoriet, Umeå Universitet, Svenska Miljöinstitutet (IVL) och Stockholms Universitet (ACES)). Ämnena var processkemikalier såsom pentaklorfenol, och triklosan, funktionskemikalier såsom ftalater och organofosfater samt oönskade kemikalier såsom dioxiner, klorfenoler och klorbensener. 2 Resultat Studien visar på att det mängdmässigt främst är funktionskemikalier som släpper från kläderna vid tvätt. Det här var väntat då dessa kemikalier är avsiktligt och oftast inte kemiskt bundet till tyget. Processkemikalier avges i mindre mängd och oönskade kemikalier såsom till exempel klorerade fenoler och bensener hittades i väldigt små mängder i tvättvattnet oavsett vilken typ av klädesplagg som tvättats. Vare sig processkemikalierna eller de oönskade kemikalierna borde finnas i plaggen och därför var det väntat att dessa kemikalier inte skulle hittas i samma utsträckning som funktionskemikalierna. Om man ser till detektionsfrekvensen, d.v.s. hur ofta de ämnen som ingår i en ämnesklass påträffas, blir bilden delvis en annan. Mer än 75% av de funktionskemikalier (38 av 50), ca 50% av funktionskemikalierna (26 av 49) och ca. 30% av processkemikalierna (8 av 27) detekterades i tvättvattenproverna. T-tröjor och skaljackorna var de klädtyper som avgav störst mängd kemikalier per kg 47 mg/kg (0.005% w/w) för t-tröjor följt av 23 mg/kg (0.002% w/w) för skaljackor. Jeans, arbetsbyxor och fleecetröjor släppte mycket mindre mängd kemikalier 0.001, 0.001 and 0.0005% vid tvätt till tvättvattnet. De fem klädtyperna släppte alla bisfenol AF, organofosfater, ftalater, formaldehyd, bromerade och klorerade fenoler samt klorerade bensener till tvättvattnet vid de två första tvättarna. Några föreningar som inte kunde detekteras i tvättvattnet var 4 stycken siloxaner, 9 stycken olika aniliner och majoriteten av de 17 dioxinerna och furanerna som ingick i studien. T-tröjor släppte mer textilfibrer (0,85 mg/kg) jämfört med de andra klädtyperna. De andra klädtyperna släppte betydlig mindre fibrer vid tvätt: jeans 0,46 mg/kg, skaljackor 0,02 mg/kg, arbetsbyxor 0,07 mg/kg och fleecetröjor 0,1 mg/kg. Diskussion Om man tar hänsyn till den årliga användningsvolymen av de olika klädestyperna avger t-tröjorna den största mängden kemikalier (469 kg funktionella kemikalier, 0,5 kg processkemikalier och 0,07 kg oönskade kemikalier) vid de två första tvättarna av plaggen. Arbetsbyxor var den klädestyp som släppte minst kemikalier (30 kg funktionella kemikalier, 7 kg processkemikalier och 0,9 g oönskade kemikalier). Ftalater och organofosfater frigjordes i stora mängder från kläderna (302 kg och 7,6 kg) och bidrar med 50% respektive 5% vardera till vad som återfinns i utgående vatten och slam från avloppsreningsverken. Klorfenoler och perfluorerade ämnen frigjordes i betydligt mindre mängder (430 g och 300 g) men bidrar i teorin med mer (167% respektive 223%) än vad som återfinns i utgåendevatten och slam från avloppsreningsverken för respektive grupp, vilket är orealistiskt. Brister i dataunderlaget eller degradering av föroreningar i reningsprocessen kan vara möjliga orsaker till överskattningen. Det är dock klart att tvätt av kläder ger ett betydande bidrag till vad som återfinns i reningsverksvatten och slam. 3 Slutsatser Kemikalier som är förbjudna enligt t ex Reach ska naturligtvis inte förekomma i kläder. Trots det så hittas de ändå ibland vid inspektion. Det är ett stort problem eftersom kemikalierna fortfarande kan vara lagliga att använda i visa länder. Exempelvis är det förbjudet att använda arylaminer inom EU, ändå återfinner vi en av dessa 4,4'-diaminodiphenylmethane i tvättvatten från alla typer av kläder i denna studie. Idag sker produktion av kläder över hela världen och det är svårt att få information om vilka kemikalier som har använts för ett visst plagg. Denna spårbarhet skulle behöva förbättras. I den här studien har vi hittat 72 av 126 föreningar, alla icke-naturliga föreningar, i tvättvattnet. De föreningar som frigjordes i störst mängder till tvättvattnet i den här studien var BPS, ftalater (DBP, BBP, DEHP, DINP, DIDP), DINCH, organofosfater (TPP, TCEP, TCPP, TEHP, TBEP) och formaldehyd. Med hänsyn taget till nettotillförseln av nya kläder kommer den mängden kemikalier på årlig basis som avges från nya kläder som tvättas de två första gångerna att vara betydande. Även om en del av de föreningar som avges från kläderna kommer att brytas ner under behandlingen av avloppsvattnet i avloppsreningsverken så kommer många av dem att hamna i det utgående vattnet eller i slammet. Dessa kommer hamna i recipienten eller där slam används för att tillföra näringsämnen. Fortsatt arbete För att få en ännu bättre bild av hur mycket kemikalier som frigörs från kläder vid tvätt skulle det vara intressant att studera fler klädtyper. Det skulle också vara av intresse att analysera kläderna i sig för att kunna avgöra hur stor andel av det som finns i kläderna som avges vid tvätt, men också vad som finns kvar i kläderna när de så småningom blir textilavfall. Slutligen skulle det vara intressant att genom så kallad "non-target analysis" av både kläder och tvättvatten få veta vilka andra föreningar som förekommer i både kläder och tvättvatten. Rätt använt skulle "non-target anaysis" kunna fånga upp ett brett spektrum av kemikalier och ge en "totalbild" av substansflödet från textilier, via tvättvatten och reningsverk, till olika recipienter. ; Water from household laundry has been estimated to make up about 2% of the total volume flowing into municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Records of the chemicals used in the manufacture of textiles/clothing and analyses of both washed clothes and laundry wastewater indicate that a large number of environmentally harmful substances can potentially reach treatment plants. These substances, including fibers and micro plastics fromlaundry, may contribute to the pollution of sewage sludge used for fertilization of arable land, or pollute the receiving waters downstream of wastewater treatment plants. Textiles are one of the groups of consumer goods that the Environmental Objectives Committee proposed (SOU 2012: 38) be subject to a government mandate regarding the use of hazardous chemicals, environmental risk reduction measures and voluntary eco-labeling. The government has also decided (Ds 2012: 23) on interim measures aimed at removing toxic material from the environment, including providing information on hazardous substances in clothing. The Swedish environmental objectives system also includes the so-called "Generation target", that states that material life cycles should be as free as possible from hazardous substances and that consumption of goods should produce as few health and environmental problems as possible, including in all the countries where they were manufactured. The Generation target means that the Swedish government needs to take into account environmental and health impacts that Swedish consumption may cause in other countries. The EU Waste Framework Directive (2008/96 / EC) defines a waste hierarchy that puts the recycling of old products, such as clothing, before the recycling of waste. This study may inform those working on developing such directives. Aim The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which laundering of five types of clothing (cotton t-shirts, cotton jeans, work trousers, fleece sweaters and weatherproof jackets) contributes to the presence of toxic pollutants in sludge and effluent water from a representative sample of treatment plants. Experimental The choice of clothing was based on the study "Kartläggning av kemikalieanvändning i kläder" (Swerea IVF, Report 09/52) and were purchased in Umeå during January 2014. The different categories of clothing were washed twice in a washing machine, without drying them in between and all wastewater was collected from the washer. Immediately after washing, samples of this water were transferred into 2 L glass containers and were analyzed for 126 compounds by three different laboratories (Miljökemiska Laboratoriet, Umeå Universitet, Svenska Miljöinstitutet (IVL) och Stockholms Universitet (ACES)). 5 Results The results show that the main types of chemicals that were released when the clothing was washed, regardless of the type of clothing, were process and functional chemicals. This was expected since functional chemicals are added to the garment and are usually not chemically bonded to the fabric, whilst the process chemicals should not be present in the final product at all. Chemicals belonging to the group unwanted chemicals were released in very small amounts to the wastewater whatever type of clothing washed. The functional chemicals represented 30 % of the analyzed target compounds but accounted for up to 99% (for t-shirts) of the release when the clothing was washed. The lowest contribution of functional chemicals to the total release of chemicals was from weatherproof jackets. Process chemicals dominated those released from weatherproof jackets (90%) and fleece sweaters (72%); for working pants, the contribution was 41%. The unwanted chemicals were present in much lower amounts in the laundry wastewater than the functional and process chemicals: they represented 1% or less of the chemicals detected. T-shirts is estimated to release the largest amount of chemicals (469 kg functional chemicals, 0.5 kg process chemicals and 0.07 kg unwanted chemicals) based on the yearly net supply and the first two washing cycles. Fleece sweaters released the least amount of chemicals; 1.8 kg functional chemicals, 2.9 kg process chemicals and 3 g unwanted chemicals. Phthalates, DINCH (a phthalate substitute), bisphenols, formaldehyde, and organophosphates were the groups of chemicals estimated to be released in largest amounts from the five types of clothing included in the study, contributing 47%, 25%, 12%, 12%, and 3%, respectively, to the total amount. Based on the yearly net supply of clothing included in this study, the estimated release of textile fibers varies between 100 kg for fleece sweaters up to 8,500 kg for t-shirts. T-shirts released 0.85 mg fibers per kg, jeans released 0.46 mg/kg, weatherproof jackets 0.02 mg/kg, working pants 0.07 mg/kg and fleece sweaters 0.1 mg/kg. Discussion Phthalates and organophosphates were estimated to be released in large amounts (302 kg and 7.6 kg) contribute with 50% and 5% respectively to the amounts found in effluents from wastewater treatment plants. Chlorophenols and perfluorinated compounds were estimated to be released in very low amounts (430 g and 300 g respectively). This is however still more, 167% and 223% respectively, than what is found annually in the effluents and sewage sludge of all Swedish WWTPs. The estimated contribution to sewage sludge for the different compound classes was far higher than the calculated contribution to effluent. The estimation produced a contribution figure of over 100% for some compound groups. Short chain chloroparaffins and chlorophenols were estimated to contribute to the amount found in sewage sludge to such a large degree that it exceeded what is actually found in the sewage sludge. Chlorophenols are distributed between both effluent and sewage sludge, but reference data was only found for sludge, so this could be the reason for the overestimation of the amount that ends up in the sewage sludge. It can also not be excluded that the selection of clothing was not representative of what is on the market. 6 Conclusions Chemicals that are banned according to legislation such as Reach should, in principle, not be present in clothing. Even so, they are sometimes found during inspections of manufacturing facilities and analyses of clothing. This is a large problem since the use of a chemical can be banned in some countries but not in others. Arylamines are, for example, forbidden within the EU, but one of those 4,4'-diaminodiphenylmethane could still be detected in all types of clothing. Now, the clothing that we wear comes from all over the world, and it is difficult to find information on which chemicals have been used in its production since that can take place in many different countries. This tractability needs to be improved. In this study, we detected 72 out of 126 compounds that are non-naturally occurring compounds, in the laundry wastewater. Among the compound groups that could not be detected were anilines, triclosan, triclocarban, and siloxanes. The compounds released in large amounts into the laundry wastewater in this study were the process chemical bisphenol S (BPS), and the functional chemicals phthalates (DBP, BBP, DINP, DIDP), DINCH, organophosphates (TPP, TCEP, TCPP, TEHP, TBEP) and formaldehyde. Considering the net supply of new clothing to Sweden, the estimated annual contribution of the release of such compounds from new clothing being washed for the first time will be substantial. Even though some of these chemicals will be degraded during the treatment process in the WWTP, many of them will end up in effluent or sewage sludge and, to different degrees, contribute to the compounds that risk ending up in WWTPs or where nutrients are recycled from sewage sludge. Future work To obtain a better picture of the volume of chemicals flowing to the WWTPs and, potentially, the environment, originating from the laundering of clothing, it would be of interest to study the release of chemicals from a broader range of clothing types. It would also be interesting to include analysis of the fabric to see what proportion of chemicals are released during laundry, and what proportion remain and are then potentially released during later washing or enter the textile waste stream. It would also be of great interest to carry out non-target analysis on both the textiles and the wastewater to form an even broader picture of which chemicals are present in the textiles and the wastewater.