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Artículo de revista ; The rise in global protectionist tensions in recent years has, after decades of across-the-board declines, entailed increases in tariffs that are proving detrimental to international trade and thereby affecting the Spanish economy's external sector outlook. This article estimates the effect of tariffs on Spanish non-energy, non-EU goods exports drawing on data broken down by country of destination and type of product. The results show that an increase in tariffs adversely impacts both export possibilities and, persistently, export values. On the estimates made, a 1% increase in import tariffs imposed by another country on a Spanish product entails a reduction in nominal exports of around 0.6%. Protectionist risks underscore the role of the EU in promoting international trade agreements, such as those recently entered into with Japan, Canada and Mercosur.

This essay aims to tackle to question of whether protectionist measures are necessary for development, by providing empirical examples from history.

Switzerland needs to be highly competitive and to have a very good access to foreign markets in order to remain attractive for investors. Over the past decades, Swiss foreign economic policy has put a major emphasis on the multilateral level —GATT, WTO—. With the European Union, a very close integration has been achieved. Besides, a broad network of free trade agreements has been established around the world. Nowadays, strong headwinds threaten the status quo and new liberalization steps face complex issues. In addition, US protectionism under President Trump's America First policy has an increasingly negative impact on the world economy. US actions further deploy growing collateral effects for Swiss firms as the EU and other partner states take precautionary measures and retaliate. ; Suiza debe ser altamente competitivo y tener un muy buen acceso a los mercados extranjeros con el objetivo de seguir siendo atractivo para los inversionistas. En las últimas décadas, la política económica exterior suiza ha puesto gran énfasis en el nivel multilateral —GATT, OMC—. Con la Unión Europea se ha logrado una integración muy estrecha. Además, se ha establecido una amplia red de acuerdos de libre comercio en todo el mundo. Hoy en día, los fuertes vientos en contra amenazan el statu quo y los nuevos pasos de liberalización enfrentan problemas complejos. Asimismo, el proteccionismo estadounidense bajo la política de America First del Presidente Trump tiene un impacto cada vez más negativo en la economía mundial. Las acciones de los Estados Unidos despliegan más efectos colaterales para las empresas suizas, ya que la Unión Europea y otros estados socios toman medidas de precaución y represalias.

Globalisation, which is the most important feature of the new economic world order, reflects the elimination of all barriers to trade of goods and services among countries. Liberalisation of the international trade is the sine qua non condition of the new economic order. As the sources are limited and needs are limitless, no country can meet their needs with their own sources. Therefore, international economic relations are emerged as the most significant element of global foreign trade. Liberalisation movement has especially accelerated after the Second World War. Governments cannot implement any protectionist policy in terms of their interests as the practices that started with the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and then continued with the World Trade Organisation (WTO) have restricted protectionist measures. Although free trade is robust in theory as a requirement of globalisation, in practice it is hard to see international trade of goods and services without any restriction. Thanks to international treaties, tariffs were reduced, however, invisible barriers to trade have emerged. Governments have usually applied protectionist policies, particularly following the global financial crises, though they engaged with the principles of globalisation. As long as protectionist policies have been implemented, neoliberal paradigm has temporarily shifted. Moreover, developing countries have difficulties as protectionist measures bring several standards in practice. It is therefore argued in this study that protectionist measures create a paradox in terms of free trade. Article DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.20319/pijss.2017.32.136158 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Non-commercial 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, PO Box 1866, Mountain View, CA 94042, USA.