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"Date originated 11/01/77; Date updated 08/21/80." ; Mode of access: Internet. ; Description based on print resource; title from cover.

Digital data contributes to an increasingly alienated aspect of our infrastructure. The complex practices of the Internet produce highly specified, engineered objects. Though their forms are 'optimized,' their intentions are not: the two primary considerations for the development of the infrastructure of the Internet are energy and security. Each category presents its own deliberations, but both often produce non-architectural, infrastructural elements beyond public visibility. The hidden infrastructure of data storage and mining (the indexing and analysis of data and traffic) produces spaces outside the agency of normative architectural discourse. The key consideration for the design of the Internet is redundancy, which operates in four ways: the redundancy of storage, the redundancy of energy supply, the redundancy of security, and the redundancy of data flow and connectivity. All data is 'backed up' twice, on two separate harddrives somewhere in physical space. All data centers receive multiple power supplies and have their own uninterrupted power supply (UPS). Multiple physical security measures control the physical access to data centers at their exteriors and within their interiors. Multiple routes exist from one node in a network to another node in another network, eliminating the blockage of information from one computer to another. This thesis challenges the infrastructure of the Internet and its key element, the data center. Whereas the data center is the ultimate node for connectivity (it is where our data is hosted), the formal, ecological, and political implications of its architecture are largely ignored. By addressing the conceptual and material problem of redundancy, architecture can reenter the discourse of data center design, which is currently dominated by engineering principles of 'efficiency' and 'optimization'. More broadly, we can begin to question the architecture of redundancy as a theoretical framework with formal and material implications. The issues of energy and security present a specific problem within a paradigm of redundancy in data storage and connectivity. Moreover, when viewing the data center as the machine (not just its components), one must consider another discourse: closed ecological systems within the larger framework of cybernetics. Though the data center may the telos of this project, the question remains: what is a homeostatic architecture, where building, machine, and organism coalesce into one? 4

AbstractIn 2021, the Chilean Convention became the first constitution-making body with gender parity. However, the draft – which reflected many gender-related norms – was rejected by 61.89 per cent of voters in the exit plebiscite of 2022. In this article, we argue that although parity constitutionalism has promise and, in the Chilean case, was linked to gender-related outcomes in the constitutional text, parity's promise may fail to materialize. We thus caution against a naïve view of parity constitutionalism as one of the key legacies of the 2020–22 Chilean constitution-making process.

Recommended readings (Machine generated): Gustav Cassel (1916), 'The Present Situation of The Foreign Exchanges', Economic Journal, XXVI (101), March, 62-5 -- Gustav Cassel (1920), 'Further Observations on the World's Monetary Problem', Economic Journal, XXX (117), March, 39-45 -- Yihui Lan (2002), 'The Explosion of Purchasing Power Parity', in Meher Manzur (ed) (ed.), Exchange Rates, Interest Rates and Commodity Prices, Chapter 2, Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 9-38 -- Bela Balassa (1964), 'The Purchasing-Power Parity Doctrine: A Reappraisal', Journal of Political Economy, 72, 584-96 -- Paul A. Samuelson (1964), 'Theoretical Notes on Trade Problems', Review of Economics and Statistics, 46, 145-54 -- Peter Isard (1977), 'How Far Can We Push the "Law of One Price"?', American Economic Review, 67 (5), December, 942-8 -- Jacob A. Frenkel (1978), 'Purchasing Power Parity: Doctrinal Perspective and Evidence from the 1920s', Journal of International Economics, 8 (2), May, 169-91 -- Michael Adler and Bruce Lehmann (1983), 'Deviations from Purchasing Power Parity in the Long Run', Journal of Finance, XXXVIII (5), December, 1471-87 -- Dean Corbae and Sam Ouliaris (1988), 'Cointegration and Tests of Purchasing Power Parity', Review of Economics and Statistics, 70, 508-11 -- Craig S. Hakkio (1984), 'A Re-examination of Purchasing Power Parity: A Multi-Country and Multi-Period Study', Journal of International Economics, 17, 265-77 -- Niso Abuaf and Philippe Jorion (1990), 'Purchasing Power Parity in the Long Run', Journal of Finance, XLV (1), March, 157-74 -- Meher Manzur (1990), 'An International Comparison of Prices and Exchange Rates: A New Test of Purchasing Power Parity', Journal of International Money and Finance, 9 (1), March, 75-91 -- James R. Lothian and Mark P. Taylor (1996), 'Real Exchange Rate Behavior: The Recent Float from the Perspective of the Past Two Centuries', Journal of Political Economy, 104 (3), 488-509 -- Jeffrey A. Frankel and Andrew K. Rose (1996), 'A Panel Project on Purchasing Power Parity: Mean Reversion Within and Between Countries', Journal of International Economics, 40 (1-2), 209-24 -- Panos Michael, A. Robert Nobay and David A. Peel (1997), 'Transactions Costs and Nonlinear Adjustment in Real Exchange Rates: An Empirical Investigation', Journal of Political Economy, 105 (4), 862-79 -- Mark P. Taylor and Lucio Sarno (1998), 'The Behavior of Real Exchange Rates during the Post-Bretton Woods Period', Journal of International Economics, 46, 281-312 -- Charles Engel (2000), 'Long-Run PPP May Not Hold After All', Journal of International Economics, 57, 243-73 -- Li Lian Ong (1997), 'Burgernomics: The Economics of the Big Mac Standard', Journal of International Money and Finance, 16 (6), 865-78 -- Kenneth Rogoff (1996), 'The Purchasing Power Parity Puzzle', Journal of Economic Literature, XXXIV, June, 647-68

This Article addresses the special interrogation protections afforded exclusively to the police when they are questioned about misconduct. In approximately twenty states, police officers suspected of misconduct are shielded by statutory Law Enforcement Officer Bills of Rights. These statutes frequently limit the tactics investigators can use during interrogations of police officers. Many of these provisions limit the manner and length of questioning, ban the use of threats or promises, require the recording of interrogations, and guarantee officers a reprieve from questioning to tend to personal necessities. These protections, which are available to police but not to ordinary criminal suspects, create inequality in our criminal justice system. In this Article, we propose a novel method by which the federal government could combat this distributional inequality while promoting broader reform in the area of police interrogation procedures. This Article proposes that Congress use its spending power to condition funds to police departments on the adoption of uniform, minimum protections for both police and civilian suspects facing interrogations.

The Supreme Court has interpreted the Federal Arbitration Act of 1925 (FAA) in a broad way that has allowed firms to widely privatize disputes with workers and consumers. The resulting expansive growth of American arbitration law has left commentators both concerned about the structural inequalities that permeate the regime and in search of an effective limiting principle. This Article develops such a limiting principle from the text and history of the FAA itself. The Article reinterprets the text and history of section 1 of the statute, which, correctly read, excludes individual employee-employer disputes from the statute's coverage. The Article argues that section 1, though targeted at employees, is based on a parity principle that holds that the state has reason to regulate and limit the enforcement of arbitration agreements where deep economic power imbalances exist between the parties — that is, where relative parity is lacking. The parity principle underlying section 1 can best be understood through the lens of Progressive-Era thought at the time of the FAA's enactment that focused on the regulatory responsibility of the state, through public adjudication and legislation subject to judicial interpretation, to publicly oversee the resolution of disputes and distribution of rights between parties of highly disparate economic power. This Article develops the logic and theory of the parity principle, and explores its implications for how courts should interpret the FAA and for legislative and administrative reforms targeted at workers and consumers.

Discover the Benefits of Risk Parity Investing An experienced researcher and portfolio manager who coined the term "risk parity," the author provides investors with a practical understanding of the risk parity investment approach. Investors will gain insight into the merit of risk parity as well as the practical and underlying aspects of risk parity investing.