Suchergebnisse

EFSA received a mandate from the European Commission to assess the effectiveness of some of the control measures against diseases included in the Category A list according to Regulation (EU) 2016/429 on transmissible animal diseases ('Animal Health Law'). This opinion belongs to a series of opinions where these control measures will be assessed, with this opinion covering the assessment of control measures for Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia (CBPP). In this opinion, EFSA and the AHAW Panel of experts review the effectiveness of: (i) clinical and laboratory sampling procedures, (ii) monitoring period, (iii) the minimum radius of the protection and surveillance zones, and (iv) the minimum length of time the measures should be applied in these zones. The general methodology used for this series of opinions has been published elsewhere. Several scenarios for which these control measures had to be assessed were designed and agreed prior to the start of the assessment. Different clinical and laboratory sampling procedures are proposed depending on the scenarios considered. The monitoring period of 45 days was assessed as not effective and at least 90 days (3 months) is recommended in affected areas where high awareness is expected; when the index case occurs in an area where the awareness is low the monitoring period should be at least 180 days (6 months). Since transmission kernels do not exist and data to estimate transmission kernels are not available, the effectiveness of surveillance and protection zones for CBPP was based on expert knowledge. A surveillance zone of 3 km was considered effective, while a protection zone including establishments adjacent to affected ones is recommended. Recommendations, provided for each of the scenarios assessed, aim to support the European Commission in the drafting of further pieces of legislation, as well as for plausible ad hoc requests in relation to CBPP.

Cette communication présente brièvement les résultats d'une évaluation technico-économique des actions de prophylaxie anti-infectieuse (vaccination anti-pestique et vaccination anti-pasteurellique) et anti-parasitaire (vermifugation) chez les petits ruminants. Elle a été réalisée au Sénégal sur cinq ans en milieu villageois et a impliqué 6500 petits ruminants dans le dispositif expérimental étendu du nord au sud du pays

Whole depopulation of cattle herds (WHD) confirmed infected by bovine tuberculosis (bTB) has led since the 1950s to a drop of herd incidence in France below 0.1% in 2000, justifying the current officially bTB free (OTF) status of the country. However, this protocol is expensive, ethically questionable, and difficult for breeders to accept because the number of confirmed animals in an infected herd is often very low. A test-and-cull protocol combining at least three screening sessions of the entire herd followed by the slaughter of all the non-negative animals has been used for some years. The aim of this work was to evaluate in silico the epidemiological effectiveness, the public costs and the acceptability to farmers of this test-and-cull protocol as well as of several ones. A stochastic compartmental model of within-herd bTB spread was used. Six test-and-cull protocols were compared: two versions of the official protocol and four alternatives with varying delays between screenings, and varying tests used. Protocols were simulated for an average French beef herd, and compared to WHD. Three key indicators were computed: the failure probability of the protocol (a failure being defined as an herd recovering its OTF status recovery while still infected, indicator of epidemiological effectiveness), its overall public cost and the percentage of farmers who would have dropped it to switch to WHD (indicator of acceptability to farmers). Failure probability ranged from 1.4 to 12.4% and was null (by definition) for WHD. The median cost varied between 2.7 and 78 K€ for the test-and-cull protocols, vs. 120 K€ for WHD. The percentage of dropout ranged from 7.8 to 22%. The optimal tradeoff between epidemiological effectiveness, public costs, and acceptability to farmers was obtained for protocols with an increased delay (6 months instead of 2 in the currently used protocol) between the last two screening sessions, with either 3 or 2 screening sessions. This study may help improving the official test-and-cull protocol applied in France under European Union regulation, by suggesting alternative protocols, very effective, cheaper, and more acceptable than WHD.

EFSA received a mandate from the European Commission to assess the effectiveness of some of the control measures against diseases included in the Category A list according to Regulation (EU) 2016/429 on transmissible animal diseases ('Animal Health Law'). This opinion belongs to a series of opinions where these control measures will be assessed, with this opinion covering the assessment of control measures for Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia (CCPP). In this opinion, EFSA and the AHAW Panel of experts review the effectiveness of: (i) clinical and laboratory sampling procedures, (ii) monitoring period, (iii) the minimum radius of the protection and surveillance zones and iv) the minimum length of time the measures should be applied in these zones. The general methodology used for this series of opinions has been published elsewhere. Several scenarios for which these control measures had to be assessed were designed and agreed prior to the start of the assessment. Different clinical and laboratory sampling procedures are proposed depending on the scenarios considered. The monitoring period of 45 days was assessed as effective in affected areas where high awareness is expected, and when the index case occurs in an area where the awareness is low the monitoring period should be at least 180 days (6 months). Since transmission kernels do not exist and data to estimate transmission kernels are not available, a surveillance zone of 3 km was considered effective based on expert knowledge, while a protection zone should also be developed to include establishments adjacent to affected ones. Recommendations, provided for each of the scenarios assessed, aim to support the European Commission in the drafting of further pieces of legislation, as well as for plausible ad hoc requests in relation to CCPP.

Vaccination of domestic poultry against avian influenza (AI) has been used on a large-scale in South East Asia since 2003 and in Egypt since 2006 to fight H5N1 highly-pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) epidemics. The decision to use mass vaccination against HPAI in Egypt was taken as an emergency measure based on positive impact of such control measures in Vietnam and the People's Republic of China. However, three years on, the impact on disease control of AI vaccination in Egypt has been very limited. Despite the continuous vaccination of poultry against HPAI, poultry outbreaks and human cases are reported regularly. A recent assessment study highlighted substantial weaknesses in the current immunisation programme and its lack of positive impact on the spread of infection or the maintenance of public health safety. The shortcomings of the vaccination strategy may be attributed in part to a lack of sufficient support in terms of funding and communication, the absence of an efficient monitoring system, and inadequate training of field technicians. The difficulties of blanket vaccinations in semi-commercial farms and household poultry sectors are well known, however, improvements in the industrial sector should be possible though better government controls and greater collaboration with the private sector. AI vaccination should be regarded as just one control tool within a broader disease control program integrating surveillance, outbreak investigation, disease management systems, and the rigorous implementation of bio-security measures. If incorrectly implemented, AI vaccination has a limited impact as a disease control measure. Moreover, without strict bio-security precautions undertaken during its application, farm visits to vaccinate poultry could facilitate the spread of the virus and therefore become a risk factor with important implications on the maintenance of the virus and potential risk for human exposure.

Une synthèse des connaissances sur l'écologie, l'importance épidémiologique et le contrôle des stomoxes à l'île de la Réunion est présentée. L'intensification de l'élevage bovin dans ce département a créé des conditions optimales pour la pullulation de ces insectes hématophages. Les stomoxes sont non seulement une nuisance directe par la spoliation sanguine et le stress lié au harcèlement des animaux, mais aussi et surtout une nuisance indirecte, en tant que vecteurs mécaniques de nombreuses maladies animales. À la Réunion, le principal rôle pathogène des stomoxes est la transmission de l'anaplasmose bovine, qui est une contrainte sanitaire majeure pour l'élevage de races européennes. Des études récentes ont permis de mieux appréhender leur distribution, leur dynamique et leur structure de populations, mais leur contrôle, organisé par le Groupement de Défense Sanitaire, reste problématique. Les, essais mis en place depuis 1994, ont donné des résultats variables ; les perspectives sont discutées. De nombreuses pistes de recherche sont explorées pour mieux comprendre leur rôle dans la transmission mécanique immédiate ou différée des agents pathogènes. L'amélioration de leur contrôle pourra être assurée en mettant en place une politique de gestion intégrée à l'échelle de l'île, basée sur une meilleure prise en compte des connaissances sur leur écologie et sur l'intégration de nouvelles méthodes de lutte (pédiluves, champignons entomopathogènes, moustiquaires imprégnées).

On peut s'étonner qu'une maladie connue depuis près de 40 ans et qui sévit aujourd'hui dans la plupart des grands pays exportateurs de bananes, puisse à ce point inquiéter les milieux professionnels, politiques et scientifiques de la Martinique et de la Guadeloupe. A l'évidence, la présence de la maladie des raies noires (MRN), plus connue sous le nom de Cercosporiose noire, n'empêche pas les grands pays producteurs d'Amérique centrale, d'Asie et d'Afrique de poursuivre leur activité bananière. Cela signifie que l'on dispose des connaissances et des moyens nécessaires au contrôle de ce parasite. Alors pourquoi une telle psychose se développe-t-elle actuellement en Martinique et en Guadeloupe et pourquoi autant redouter une maladie, qui ailleurs, n'a pas un impact rédhibitoire sur l'économie bananière ? Cette maladie est due à un champignon parasite des feuilles connu sous le nom de #Mycospbaerella fijiensis#. Comme son nom l'indique, ce champignon a d'abord été identifié aux îles Fidji d'où il s'est propagé à travers le monde. Dans les zones continentales, cette propagation se fait de proche en proche (de bananier en bananier). Les zones maritimes constituent un obstacle naturel. Bien que l'on ne puisse pas écarter les risques d'une dissémination naturelle (par le vent) des spores du champignon, l'apparition de la maladie d'un continent à l'autre ou d'île en île résulte, la plupart du temps, de transferts incontrôlés de matériel végétal. La menace parasitaire est maintenant très proche des petites Antilles, ce qui accroît d'autant le risque de son apparition

Background: In 2005, the Government of Senegal embarked on a campaign to eliminate a Glossina palpalis gambiensis population from the Niayes area (,1000 km2) under the umbrella of the Pan African Tsetse and Trypanosomosis Eradication Campaign (PATTEC). The project was considered an ecologically sound approach to intensify cattle production. The elimination strategy includes a suppression phase using insecticide impregnated targets and cattle, and an elimination phase using the sterile insect technique, necessary to eliminate tsetse in this area. Methodology/Principal Findings: Three main cattle farming systems were identified: a traditional system using trypanotolerant cattle and two ''improved'' systems using more productive cattle breeds focusing on milk and meat production. In improved farming systems herd size was 45% lower and annual cattle sales were J250 (s.d. 513) per head as compared to J74 (s.d. 38) per head in traditional farming systems (p,1023). Tsetse distribution significantly impacted the occurrence of these farming systems (p = 0.001), with 34% (s.d. 4%) and 6% (s.d. 4%) of improved systems in the tsetse-free and tsetse-infested areas, respectively. We calculated the potential increases of cattle sales as a result of tsetse elimination considering two scenarios, i.e. a conservative scenario with a 2% annual replacement rate from traditional to improved systems after elimination, and a more realistic scenario with an increased replacement rate of 10% five years after elimination. The final annual increase of cattle sales was estimated at ,J2800/km2 for a total cost of the elimination campaign reaching ,J6400/km2. Conclusion/Significance: Despite its high cost, the benefit-cost analysis indicated that the project was highly cost-effective, with Internal Rates of Return (IRR) of 9.8% and 19.1% and payback periods of 18 and 13 years for the two scenarios, respectively. In addition to an increase in farmers' income, the benefits of tsetse elimination include a reduction of grazing pressure on the ecosystems.

The vascular disease Verticillium wilt of cacao (Theobroma cacao), caused by the soilborne fungus Verticillium dahliae, is often qualified as a "minor" disease. However, it can cause severe losses locally, for example, in western Uganda and northeast of the Democratic Republic of Congo. This disease is difficult to control, notably due to an extended host range and prolonged survival in the soil. Therefore, Verticillium wilt must be addressed through an integrated disease management strategy as employed for other tree crops such as olive. Few studies, nonetheless, have focused on how to confront this disease in cacao. This paper aims to provide an overview of our knowledge on Verticillium wilt on cacao and the integrated disease management strategies for preventing and controlling it. Promising avenues based on findings in other crops that could be adapted to cacao are also explored. Good agricultural practices, genetic resistance, biological control, induced resistance, and the use of organic amendments with or without biocontrol agents are discussed. Moreover, the potential benefits of some of these solutions toward the resistance to other cacao diseases, abiotic stress, and nutrition improvement are presented.

Historique. L'anacardier (Anacardium occidentale), originaire du nord-est du Brésil, a été introduit au Mozambique à la fin du XVIè siècle. Ce pays a longtemps été le premier producteur mondial avec 216 000 t de noix commercialisées en 1971-1972. Par la suite, certaines mesures politiques et la concurrence d'autres pays producteurs lui ont fait perdre sa place. Face à cette situation, des actions d'appui à la filière anacarde ont été entreprises à partir des années quatre-vingt. Relance de l'anacarde au Mozambique. Au Mozambique, l'anacardier se rencontre tout le long de la côte, mais il est surtout localisé dans les provinces du Nord. Le contexte de la libéralisation et de la privatisation de la filière engagées ces dernières années est décrit, ainsi que les conséquences engendrées par ces actions. Les différents projets d'appui à la filière ont surtout concerné la production et la diffusion de plants. Le plus récent, le "Projet de relance du cajou" (PRC) a été élaboré en 1999. Il a visé l'amélioration de la productivité de l'anacarde et la production de noix de qualité au travers de systèmes d'exploitation aptes à conserver la fertilité des sols. Dans ce contexte, les recherches d'accompagnement se sont focalisées sur la lutte contre les maladies et parasites de l'anacarde et la sélection de matériel végétal performant. Lutte contre les maladies de l'anacardier. Les résultats obtenus pour le contrôle de l'oïdium avec des fongicides organiques et la possibilité d'une alternance de produits (soufre / triazole) sont présentés. De même, l'utilisation de fongicides organiques pour le contrôle de l'anthracnose est abordée. Contrôle des ravageurs. Ce point nécessite la formation en cours d'un entomologiste et la mise en place d'un système d'avertissement qui devrait permettre à terme de disposer d'un outil multirégional d'alerte et d'aide à la décision. Sélection et amélioration. L'obtention de nouvelles variétés a été abordée par un essai de comportement clonal, la sélection de types communs locaux et la création d'hybrides. Conclusions. Les premiers résultats du PRC sont encourageants et sa réalisation a permis la constitution d'une unité de recherche régionale qui est venue conforter et redynamiser la recherche anacarde à l'échelle nationale.

L'épidémiologie a pour but de fournir les informations indispensables à la mise en place de programme de lutte contre les maladies. Toutefois, en de nombreuses circonstances et notamment dans les pays en développement, les informations collectées sont encore fragmentaires ou incomplètes et la prise de décision en est souvent compliquée. En s'inspirant du modèle de Simon, développé dans le domaine de la gestion des entreprises, les auteurs proposent un schéma directeur faisant appel à la personnalité du ou des décideurs et applicable en l'absence d'une information complète (modèle à rationalité limitée). Les diverses étapes de ce schéma (définition, conception, choix, réalisation et évaluation) sont commentées

En juillet 2008 apparaît pour la première fois au Maroc la peste des petits ruminants (PPR). S'agissant d'une maladie décrite comme des plus violentes et destructrices, son occurrence sur le territoire marocain intéressait une grande variété d'acteurs, des éleveurs aux décideurs en passant par les gouvernements étrangers et les organisations internationales. A partir d'une enquête qualitative menée au Maroc entre 2011 et 2012, l'article analyse d'abord la construction du problème de la PPR, puis montre comment, pour être efficaces, les recommandations de l'OIE ont été adaptées au contexte marocain. Parmi les différentes préconisations pour lutter contre la PPR, c'est la vaccination qui a été privilégiée à la fois par les acteurs nationaux et internationaux. L'article met en lumière les nombreux éléments, institutionnels ou contextuels, qui ont facilité le transfert de cette solution et de quelle manière le Maroc et ses services vétérinaires ont transformé ce défi en opportunité. Elle va légitimer et renforcer les choix de politique publique engagés par le Maroc avant la crise.

Background Tsetse flies are the cyclical vectors of African trypanosomosis that constitute a major constraint to development in Africa. Their control is an important component of the integrated management of these diseases, and among the techniques available, the sterile insect technique (SIT) is the sole that is efficient at low densities. The government of Burkina Faso has embarked on a tsetse eradication programme in the framework of the PATTEC, where SIT is an important component. The project plans to use flies from a Glossina palpalis gambiensis colony that has been maintained for about 40 years at the Centre International de Recherche-Développement sur l'Elevage en zone Subhumide (CIRDES). It was thus necessary to test the competitiveness of the sterile males originating from this colony. Methodology/Principal Findings During the period January-February 2010, 16,000 sterile male G. p. gambiensis were released along a tributary of the Mouhoun river. The study revealed that with a mean sterile to wild male ratio of 1.16 (s.d. 0.38), the abortion rate of the wild female flies was significantly higher than before (p = 0.026) and after (p = 0.019) the release period. The estimated competitiveness of the sterile males (Fried index) was 0.07 (s.d. 0.02), indicating that a sterile to wild male ratio of 14.4 would be necessary to obtain nearly complete induced sterility in the female population. The aggregation patterns of sterile and wild male flies were similar. The survival rate of the released sterile male flies was similar to that observed in 1983-1985 for the same colony. Conclusions/Significance We conclude that gamma sterilised male G. p. gambiensis derived from the CIRDES colony have a competitiveness that is comparable to their competitiveness obtained 35 years ago and can still be used for an area-wide integrated pest management campaign with a sterile insect component in Burkina Faso.

Chikungunya is a vector-borne Disease, usually localized in Asia and East-Africa, with Aedes albopictus mosquito as the principal vector for the Chikungunya virus. In 2005 and 2006, Réunion Island faced two epidemics of Chikungunya: the 2006's epidemic was particularly dramatic. This was the _rst time that a developed country, like Réunion Island, was a_ected by this virus. In July 2007, a small outbreak occurred in Italy, indicating that the South of Europe is potentialy threatened. In recent works [1,2], we proposed and studied a mathematical model to explain the outbreak of 2005 and possible links with the explosive epidemic of 2006. These studies speci_cally focus on the comparison of di_erent mosquito control tools (adulticide, larvicide, and mechanical control) in order to know if it would have been possible to contain or to completely avert the 2006 epidemic. We showed that the combination of the three control tools (with a suitable period of release and a su_cient duration of the treatment) would have been useful to control the explosive epidemic of 2006 [2]. As far as we know, Aedes albopictus in Réunion Island is yet sensitive to Deltamethrin, the only authorized adulticide, but can become resistant, like in Martinique, a West Indies French Island. Moreover, Réunion Island is a hot spot of endemicity and, thus, the use of chemical control tools can be limited. It is also necessary to study and to check the feasibility of other vector control tools such as the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT). To this e_ect, a project called TIS (Technique d'Insecte Stérile), funded by the French Ministry of Health, the European Union and the Regional Council is ongoing in Réunion Island. The aim of this talk is to give a short introduction to the TIS project and to present some recent mathematical results related to the SIT-LSIR model considered for the Chikungunya disease. Moreover, because mechanical control (destruction of breeding sites) is a very cheap and sustainable alternative, we combine mechanical control and SIT control. We present several numerical simulations to assess the e_cacy of the SIT vector-control in comparison with the Chemical vector control, studied in [2]. We show that SIT (impulse) control could be useful to control the wild mosquito population and thus lower the risk of an epidemic.

La surveillance des animaux d'élevage relève d'enjeux multiples qui dépassent le simple contrôle de leurs performances de production et évoluent en fonction du contexte historique, social, politique et économique. Dans le cas de la Rhodésie du Sud (futur Zimbabwe), des dispositifs complexes de surveillance des animaux ont contribué à l'organisation et la sécurité territoriale de l'État colonial, et à son développement économique. Avec l'indépendance du pays, ils ont servi de base à l'organisation du contrôle de la fièvre aphteuse selon les normes internationales et permis de développer l'élevage pour l'exportation. Ces dispositifs reposent principalement sur une catégorisation et " séquestration géographique " du vivant : colon/indigène ; homme/animal ; domestique/sauvage ; sain/malsain. L'organisation de la surveillance va être bouleversée par les réformes foncières des années 2000 et son rétablissement remis en cause par la montée en puissance des concepts de biodiversité et " One Health ", et la volonté d'intégrer les populations pauvres au développement économique. De nouveaux dispositifs de surveillance émergent (sous la forme de parcs transfrontaliers et de normes sanitaires de type " commodity based trade ") qui visent à associer davantage le contrôle des flux à celui des frontières et témoignent de continuités et discontinuités avec les catégories héritées de la période coloniale.