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AbstractSelf-control failure occurs when an individual experiences a conflict between immediate desires and longer-term goals, recognises psychological forces that hinder goal-directed action, tries to resist them but fails in the attempt. Behavioural economists often invoke assumptions about self-control failure to justify proposals for policy interventions. These arguments require workable methods for eliciting individuals' goals and for verifying occurrences of self-control failure, but developing such methods confronts two problems. First, it is not clear that individuals' goals are context-independent. Second, facing an actual conflict between a desire and a self-acknowledged goal, a person may consciously choose not to resist the desire, thinking that spontaneity is more important than self-control. We address these issues through an online survey that elicited individuals' self-reported judgements about the relative importance of self-control and spontaneity in conflicts between enjoyment and health-related goals. To test for context-sensitivity, the judgement-elicitation questions were preceded by a memory recall task which directed participants' attention either to the enjoyment of acting on desires or to the satisfaction of achieving goals. We found little evidence of context-sensitivity. In both treatments, however, judgements that favoured spontaneity were expressed with roughly the same frequency and strength as judgments that favoured self-control.

As a unique and endangered species in the family Salicaceae, Chosenia arbutifolia (Pall.) A. Skv. has great potential for use in ornamental and industrial purposes. Despite its comprehensive importance, the phylogenetic position of C. arbutifolia within Salicaceae is still ambiguous. In the present study, the whole chloroplast genome of C. arbutifolia was sequenced and compared with the genome of other Salicaceae species. A phylogenetic tree was established based on the maximum-likelihood (ML) methods. The de novo assemblies generated 155684 bp in length for the completed cp genome of C. arbutifolia, including a large single-copy region of 84551 bp, a small single-copy region of 16217 bp, and two inverted repeat regions of 27458 bp each. In total, 130 genes were predicted, of which 85 protein-coding genes were annotated in at least one of the five reference databases. In the repeat analysis, 23 forward, 15 palindromic, one complement, one reverse long repeats, and 221 putative SSRs were identified. The results of genome comparison showed that the large single copy region (LSC) region was more divergent than the small single copy region (SSC) and inverted repeated (IR) regions, and a higher divergence occurred in non-coding regions than in coding regions. Significant contractions or expansions were also observed at the IR-LSC/SSC boundaries. Phylogenetic analysis of 20 Salicaceae species confirmed that C. arbutifolia is closely related to Salix species and may therefore be treated as a member of the genus Salix. The complete C. arbutifolia chloroplast genome will provide insight into the chloroplast architecture, function, and evolution of this species and provide additional resources for future research.