Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) was first officially reported in Indonesia in 2004; the disease is now endemic, particularly in the Java, Sumatra, Bali and South Sulawesi Islands. During the early stages of the epidemic, emergency interventions were mainly implemented by the government with assistance from local and international partners. With the establishment of the disease, emergency control measures were replaced by routine interventions that require stronger involvement of all the actors, particularly in the poultry sector. The main challenge with this approach, however, is whether poultry value chain actors can comply with the requirements for effective implementation of HPAI control measures. To begin addressing this issue, the present study attempted to (i) characterize control measures in terms of expected degree of compliance by both actors in the poultry value chain and the agents responsible for their implementation, and in this manner (ii) identify actors that may be expected to act as compliance fail-points to successful implementation of control measures. The approach posits that actors' willingness to comply depends fundamentally on the alignment of control measures with the actors' capacity to comply, their current practices and incentives they face.
In 2008, Bali was struck by rabies and since then rabies had spread to 273 of 723 villages in Bali and the number of human fatalities had reached 145. The concerted effort of government and stakeholders to combat this disease is progressing well. At present, the government's control program consists of mass vaccination, selected targeted culling, and education with a goal to eradicate rabies from the island by 2015. The additional effort on the establishment of participatory rabies prevention, control and surveillance system within the local community level is needed to improve the ongoing and future rabies control efforts. As part of a project "Ecohealth Approaches for Optimizing the Rabies Control Program in Bali", organized by CIVAS, with support from the IDRC and led by ILRI, within the project, we developed and piloted a community-based model for sustainable rabies control driven by community involvement in two villages in Karangasem and Gianyar districts in Bali. Promising results from pilot villages model indicates high participation of the community (formed 82 cadres in Gianyar and Karangasem) on the public awareness, early reporting, early response and early detection on bitten cases and supporting on government program particularly on the mass vaccination by registration data of the dog within community to achieved high coverage on vaccination (>70%). This efforts suggests that involving community members more actively in villages through the institutionalization of 'rabies village working groups' could substantially improve surveillance activities with possible effects on improving dog management and vaccination coverage. With little direct financial input such participation creates a sense of community ownership. This approach showed affective on improving early response, early detection and surveillance system that could be used effectively across other districts in Bali. The continued fight against rabies on Bali and elsewhere in the developing world would benefit significantly from engaging communities more actively in control and surveillance efforts.
Background Previously free of rabies, Bali experienced an outbreak in 2008, which has since caused a large number of human fatalities. In response, both mass dog culling and vaccination have been implemented. In order to assess potential community-driven interventions for optimizing rabies control, we conducted a study exploring the relationship between dogs, rabies, and the Balinese community. The objectives of this study were to: i) understand the human-dog relationship in Bali; ii) explore local knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAPs) relating to rabies; and iii) assess potential community-driven activities to optimize rabies control and surveillance. Methods Conducted between February and June 2011, the study combined a questionnaire (n = 300; CI = 95 %; error margin = 5 %) and focus group discussions (FGDs) in 10 villages in the Denpasar, Gianyar, and Karangasem regencies. The questionnaire included a Likert scale to assess community knowledge and attitudes. For the knowledge assessment, three points were given for a correct answer, while wrong answers and uncertain answers were given zero points. For the attitudes assessment, three points were given for a positive answer, two points for a neutral answer, and one point for a negative answer. Respondent knowledge was categorized as good (score >40), fair (score 20–40), or poor (score 26), neutral (score 13–26), or negative (score <13), based on a maximum total score of 39. Mixed-gender FGDs in each sub-village (banjar) were conducted, each involving 7–15 participants to complement the questionnaire results. On a follow-up research trip in mid-2013, the data analysis was triangulated and validated using semi-structured interviews. Questionnaire data were analyzed descriptively using SPSS 17.0, while qualitative data from interviews and FGDs were analyzed manually according to accepted methods of coding and memo writing. The chi-square test was then used to analyze the statistical relationships between knowledge and attitudes of the respondents. Results Out of the total 300 respondents, most were predominantly male (82 %), Hindu (99 %), married (96 %), older than 30 years of age (92 %), and owned dogs (72 %). Dog ownership was motivated by culture, personal taste, and function, with dogs was being used as guards (85 %) and companion animals (27 %), and was sometimes related to religious or traditional obligations (2 %). Relating to their culture and local beliefs, and eventually becoming their way of life, 79 % of respondents kept free-roaming dogs. With the rabies outbreak in Bali and Western breeds becoming more popular, more responsible dog ownership (leashing, confining, regular feeding) became more acceptable and changed community perceptions on keeping dogs, even though the sustainability of this practice cannot be gauged. In addition, the economic situation posed major problems in rural areas. The level of community knowledge about rabies and its associated control programs were generally fair and community attitudes were positive. However, community KAPs still need to be improved. A total of 74 % respondents reported to have vaccinated their dogs in 2011, but only few were found to report rabid animals to livestock officers (12 %) and a significant number believed that washing a bite wound was not important (62 %). Moreover, free-roaming dog practices and discarding of unwanted female puppies still continue and possibly create difficulties for rabies elimination as these practices potentially increase the stray dog population. We identified three major sociocultural aspects with potential for community-driven interventions to optimize current rabies elimination efforts: integrating local notions of ahimsa (non-violence) into education campaigns, engaging communities through the local banjar sociopolitical system, and working with traditional legal structures to increase local compliance with rabies control. Conclusion The human-dog relationship in Bali is multifaceted. Due to the uniqueness of the culture and the local beliefs, and encouraged by a socioeconomic aspect, a number of local practices were found to be constituting risk factors for continued rabies spread. Community knowledge and attitudes, which can consequently result in behavioral changes, needs to be improved across different genders, ages, educational backgrounds, and roles in the community, regardless of the individual village's experiences with rabies. Furthermore, community-driven activities based on sociocultural conditioning and community capacity at the banjar and village levels, such as public awareness activities, vaccination, dog registration, dog population management, and rapid response to dog bites, were identified as being able to complement the rabies control program in Bali. The program also needs recognition or acknowledgement from governments, especially local government as well as regular mentoring to improve and sustain community participation.
