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A number of d/Deaf and hard of hearing students, as well as other students in special education programs, have difficulty accessing academic content information that, traditionally, has been presented in written language in print and electronically (e.g., textbooks, other school materials, etc.). Because this information represents what students need to know, there will be a large gap in their knowledge base, and students will not have ample opportunities to develop a high level of literate thought. That is, students will not be able to represent and manipulate information, solve problems, or develop other higher-level critical thinking skills. This article presents a case for the reconceptualization of literacy—namely, a broadening of our traditional notion of literacy as being able to read and write a written language. This reconceptualization, emphasizing literate thought, requires a discussion of types of literacies and an understanding of constructs such as access and interpretation, illiteracy, and listening comprehension. Also discussed is the intertwinement of literate thought and Universal Design for Learning. The article concludes with questions for further exploration and dialogue.

The focus of this article is on the development of adequate English reading skills. To delineate necessary components for a phonemic-based language, it is necessary to compare two broad frameworks--the Qualitative Similarity Hypothesis (QSH) and the American Sign Language (ASL)— English sign-print bilingual model. Both frameworks have been invoked to address the language and literacy challenges of d/Deaf and hard of hearing (d/Dhh) children and adolescents. Descriptions of the QSH and ASL are provided, and a synthesis of salient research findings is presented. The selection of relevant sources for both frameworks is the result of both a systematic and a professional review, focusing on early and recent investigations. There are benefits associated with the use of American Sign Language in a sign-print ASL-English bilingual education program, especially when combined with fingerspelling and English orthography. However, these benefits seem to diminish during the later early literacy period, particularly in the alphabetic stage. Thus, it is argued that, at present, the QSH and other extant developmental models proffer not only stronger evidence, but also a better explanation for the difficulties of d/Dhh students in developing early and advanced English reading skills. The article concludes with recommendations for further research.

This article provides a summary of the historical background and basic tenets of the Qualitative Similarity Hypothesis (QSH), which has been applied to explore the language and literacy acquisition of d/Deaf and hard of hearing (d/Dhh) children and adolescents in the United States (and elsewhere, for example, South Korea and Saudi Arabia). The QSH is a developmental similarity model, influenced by the early investigations on language and literacy development of children with developmental/intellectual/cognitive or learning/language disabilities. It is argued that the acquisition of English (or any other phonemic language) by d/Deaf and hard of hearing children or other children in Special Education programs is developmentally or qualitatively similar to that of typical (non-disabled) language and literacy learners. This is also the case for second language learners of English, often labeled English language learners. The QSH can be used to provide indirect support for inclusive education programs and strong direct support for access to the general education curriculum.

The purpose of this narrative review was to summarize empirical studies regarding the effects of metacognition on English reading-related outcomes for students who are d/Deaf and hard of hearing (d/Dhh). This review covered the timeframe from the publication of the previous and only narrative review conducted by Strassman (1997) to 2020. Several of Strassman's assertions were confirmed, including the oft-repeated one: d/Dhh students possess inadequate comprehension-monitoring skills. In fact, the students are not aware of effective metacognitive strategies and, in general, do not know "what they do not know." Although intervention is strongly recommended, a few later studies asserted that such intervention not only should be based on the recommendations of the National Reading Panel, but also should be differentiated to meet the individual needs of d/Dhh students. It was argued that d/Dhh reading comprehension challenges are due to metacognitive or executive function issues; however, this assumption needs to be contextualized within a framework of reading which entails decoding and comprehension processes.

This study examined the performance of deaf and hard of hearing middle school students on arithmetic compare word problems with relational statements. Thirteen prelingual, severe-to-profound deaf students were selected to participate. The results showed that the students were more likely to misunderstand a relational statement and make a reversal error when the required arithmetic operation was inconsistent with the statement's relational term (e.g., choosing the operation of addition when the relational term was less than). There were no statistical differences in the number of reversal errors and on lexical markedness (i.e., marked vs. unmarked items). Finally, fraction-of-a-number relational terms exerted more influence on students' abilities to solve word problems than did the lexical markedness. Findings are interpreted in light of the consistency effect hypothesis. Directions for future research and implications for instruction are also provided.

This study focused on the perceptions of students with visual impairment. A narrative meta-analysis was utilized to synthesize the findings of investigations that employed quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methodological designs. Based on the contents of the reviewed articles, three broad categories were established: barriers, feelings of acceptance, and successful components of inclusion. Barriers included the physical environments of schools, accessibility, and social interactions. With respect to feelings of acceptance, the constructs of homophily and fitting in were discussed. Several components of successful inclusion were delineated such as a positive school climate and a positive, supportive attitude associated with teachers, especially those who possess knowledge and skills and held high expectations for students. Students with visual impairment also needed skills to be autonomous and assertive, which are conducive to academic success and the initiation and building of friendships with sighted peers. A number of findings of the present study corroborated those from previous investigations; however, the uniqueness of this seminal research pertains to the specific perceptions of students with visual impairment in inclusive settings. Limitations of the study were also discussed.

This qualitative case study investigated two teachers' use of metacognitive strategies during reading instruction and the types of metacognitive assessments used to assess students' metacognitive strategies. Data collection was performed using a case study methodology via two semi-structured interviews, observations of five reading instruction lessons, and two selfrecorded question responses, known collectively as the experience sampling method (ESM). The data collected were coded based on three time periods: planning before reading, monitoring during reading, and evaluating after reading. The findings reveal that the two teacher-participants spent a substantial amount of time activating their students' prior knowledge and building vocabulary. In addition, both teachers only used think aloud assessments to examine the type of metacognitive strategies that their students used during reading sessions. There is a need to consider other metacognitive strategies, including evaluating strategies, and to utilize alternative methods of assessment alongside think aloud, such as interviews.