Suchergebnisse

The article presents the mechanisms of censorship in the 1980s in the People's Republic of Poland as well as its consequences that still affect the present. It examines examples of the works subjected to the control as well as the writers of the period, including those who were banned from printing in the country. It indicates fragments of texts once removed from books and discusses works that could not be published in Poland in the 1980s. References are made to the three literary spheres existing at that time in the People's Republic of Poland: in the first, the "official" one, freedom of speech was significantly limited, and all texts were checked by the Main Office for the Control of Presentations and Public Performances (Główny Urząd Kontroli Prasy, Publikacji i Widowisk); the second (drugi obieg), also described as the free, underground, independent publishing sphere, was not subject to censorship and was illegal, according to the laws in force at that time; the third sphere was émigré literature, by which we mean Polish language materials published abroad. The aim of this article is to show the complexity of this situation as well as its consequences for the present day.

The history of local government on Polish territories is not shorter or less fascinating than in other European countries. However, political obstacles, military conflicts, changes in the statehood system or finally its loss caused that what wherever else is the basis for further development of local democracy in Poland has to be built from the start. I mean here of course the long-lasting tradition of independent shaping and strengthening patterns, views and visions of local & regional self-governance, of which chance to fully develop Poland had not have. €The socio-political reality of today's 3rd Republic is a dynamically evolving country, which due to the rapidness of that change demands strong support from its finest researchers and scientists.€ The goal set for them is to present a wide range of concepts that will allow to program the future direction of progress. €This way the necessary fundaments for Polish democracy at the regional and local level, and a tradition of discussion and sustainable development is born. In my opinion a good attempt to take part of the mentioned responsibility was the book edited by PhD Joanna Marszałek-Kawa from Univeristy of Nicolaus Copernicus in Torun, Poland.

The article presents the philosophical concepts and axiological foundations that affect the understanding of the concept of private law and also justify the orderly distinction in the legal system between private and public law. In particular, the considerations contained in the following work answer the question of how universal philosophical and humanistic concepts, as well as principles and values such as human dignity and freedom, for example - influence the modern legislator and the understanding of private and public law. The authors also establish how philosophical and axiological criteria affect the relationship between private and public law, in particular, how such criteria, in the processes of interpretation and application of law, allow the construction of a coherent and complementary "legal order."

The purpose of this article is to examine the causes of recurring doubts regarding the safety of plant protection products used in the European Union. Plant protection products are a particular subject of regulation. All standards concerning them require prior in-depth scientific research in the field of exact sciences. Achieving adequate safety of humans, animals and the environment in connection to the use of plant protection products requires not only good law, but a law based on representative research and scientific certainty. Bearing in mind the above, the authors undertook an analysis of what seems to be the cause of significant social doubts as to the actual achievement of the purposes of Regulation 1107/2009, i.e. inclusion of scientific research in the procedure of approval of active substances in plant protection products. First, the approval procedure for the active substance of the plant protection product was presented, and then the main shortcoming of the procedure was analyzed on the example of the approval of glyphosate. In the authors' opinion, guidance documents on literature review should be revised to reflect the best scientific practice, and their standards should be enforced, in particular, to ensure that there is no doubt about the objectivity of the literature review.

In July 2023 the European Commission has announced bringing an action to the Court of Justice of the European Union against Poland. The action concerns on the functioning of the prohibition of pharmacy advertising in Polish law, which leads to the question - whether and how such prohibition may violate European law. The objective of this research paper is to give, in particular for a foreign reader, a general overview of the prohibition of pharmacy advertising institution, as well as the proceedings conducted by the European Commission under Art. 258 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union against Poland. The other objective of this paper is to conclude whether there are existing any alternatives to resolve dispute between the Commission and Poland, without a necessity for bringing an action to the Court and also what are the possible consequences of not using them. The author of the paper shares his remarks on one of the allegations presented in the European Commission's press release.

The research purpose of the paper is to analyze the key assumptions outlined in the US National Security Strategy 2022. The paper will look for answers to the following questions: What is national security strategy? Is it an important document? What and for whom does it matter? What direction will US policy take under Joe Biden's administration? What tools and methods will be used? What are the goals and priorities set in the document? Which countries are among the closest allies and biggest adversaries? What impact had the Russian aggression against Ukraine on the shape of the US National Security Strategy 2022? The main research method will be source analysis and criticism, as well as a comparative method to contrast the current NSS with previous ones. The research thesis assumes that the priority of the current US security strategy remains the one initiated during previous White House administrations – the rivalry with China, which in tandem with Russia aims to change the modern international order, threatening the national interests of the United States of America. The conducted analysis, on the one hand, confirms the thesis, and, on the other hand, points to inconsistencies in US strategic thinking (which takes the form of a "wish list"), which can significantly affect the effectiveness of the implementation of the set goals and objectives.

The purpose of this article is to answer the question of the legal nature of the European clause contained in the Spanish Constitution. The article examines how it has influenced the process of European integration and the constitutional order in that country. This has been done by analysing the provisions of the Spanish Constitution and the jurisprudence of the Constitutional Tribunal using Spanish constitutional law studies. In the author's opinion, the rather general and open European clause, although it required the jurisprudential activity of the Constitutional Tribunal, proved to be quite functional, becoming the basis of the relationship between Spanish law and EU law and remains unchanged to date.

The most difficult period that the Polish Autocephalous Church of the 2ⁿd Polish Republic experienced was in 1938 when, by the decision of administrative authorities, over 127 sacral buildings in Khelm region and Podlachia were pulled down. The third transfer stage took place from 1937 to 1939 and, for the most part, took the form of demolishing Orthodox churches. (It should be noted that the demolition of Orthodox churches happened throughout the whole period of the existence of the Second Polish Republic.) The churches which were destroyed were those which were the symbols of the Russian Tsar's reign. Over thirty Orthodox churches were destroyed, including the cathedral in Saski Square in Warsaw, the Sts. Cyril and Methodius cathedral in Khelm and the Resurrection cathedral in Bialystok. The demolition of these Orthodox churches – regarded as symbols of Russian rule – was spontaneous and often irrational. Nevertheless, it never happened on a massive scale. Only in 1938 did a programme of destroying Orthodox churches emerge as a distinct element of the Polonisation effort. This programme was initiated by the government itself. The official reason was that those churches were not needed, dilapidated, or had been built as a result of Russifi cation in the past. However, it appears that the reason was to weaken the Belarusian and Ukrainian national minority movement through closing parishes and active Orthodox churches. The "pacifi cation: of parishes in 1937 started in the Lublin region. First, a kind of social movement for the "propagation of Polish values and traditions" was created by the polish local authority. Then the army and police persecuted the Orthodox Church and people in order to convert them to Roman Catholicism. The demolition of Orthodox churches was conducted from the second half of May until the first half of July 1938. The actions were taken up by the local administration and co-ordination committees with help from the army and police in a hostile, anti-Orthodox atmosphere. To this end, the government used youth, army sappers, worker brigades, and even prisoners. Administrative and material measures were used to pressure the Orthodox who were blackmailed and threatened while their churches, which often served thousands of faithful, were destroyed. In most cases, the Orthodox community made no attempt to actively resist the demolitions. They prayed and protested, but were unable to oppose such an officially organised action.

Political scientists, in their research work, concentrate on various topics. For some, thoughts and ideas of a famous statesman are fascinating and for others is the future influence of NGO's on local communities. One thing, one time is said to have enough potential to unite attention of most of political scientists, as this is an event when they may observe how matters that they are especially interested in are apprehended. is mentioned event is, in my opinion, what elections indeed are and some may even say that elections are the festival of politics and sometimes of democracy.

The American strategy to combat the 'Islamic State' rests on four pillars. The first is to conduct systematic air campaigns against the terrorists. The second involves increasing support for forces fighting the jihadists on the ground. The third is based on the strengthening of international cooperation in counter–terrorism operations. The fourth involves the provision of humanitarian aid to civilians displaced from the territories occupied by the jihadists. This article analyzes the assumptions, tactics, the most important decisions and actions of the American administration to combat the 'Islamic State'. It is an attempt to provide answers to the questions: why has there been a growth of extremism in the Middle East? Why is the 'Islamic State' a new form of terrorist threat? How does it differ from other terrorist organizations? How was the 'Islamic State' created? What actions have been taken by the international coalition led by the United States in the fight against the jihadists in the Middle East? Is the strategy taken up by the United States effective? Does the defeat of the 'Islamic State' require the involvement of US ground forces in Iraq and Syria?