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AbstractExisting studies on socio‐economic differentiation in Vietnam focus on the inequality between the ethnic majority and minorities while neglecting the disparitiesamongethnic minorities. Using a framework to analyse marginalisation at different scales, we identified through an extensive literature review the diverse ways in which ethnic groups develop strategies to transform or maintain their marginality. These strategies depend on, at the same time influence, inequalities that manifest in processes of social differentiations and power relations. Elucidating these processes of inequalities enables us to promote livelihood opportunities that support the diverse development pathways of different ethnic groups, thus increasing the relevance of development interventions.

Existing studies on socio-economic differentiation in Vietnam focus on the inequality between the ethnic majority and minorities while neglecting the disparities among ethnic minorities. Using a framework to analyse marginalisation at different scales, we identified through an extensive literature review the diverse ways in which ethnic groups develop strategies to transform or maintain their marginality. These strategies depend on, at the same time influence, inequalities that manifest in processes of social differentiations and power relations. Elucidating these processes of inequalities enables us to promote livelihood opportunities that support the diverse development pathways of different ethnic groups, thus increasing the relevance of development interventions.

Since the 90s value chain (VC) approaches have received considerable attention by governments and development agencies for poverty reduction and strengthening the private sector. VC analysis has been used for developing intervention strategies to upgrade existing or to establish new VCs. Despite a massive number of frameworks and guidelines for VC analysis for upgrading existing VCs, there is no single recommendation on conducting feasibility studies for developing new ones. Addressing this issue, we undertook a feasibility study for developing a cut foliage VC based on wild-harvesting of Gleichenia ferns in New Caledonia using a holistic framework combining relevant conceptual elements and various analytical tools in VC literature. Results showed the importance of starting with understanding goals of establishing the VC. In this case goals were creating employment in remote areas and starting to valorize New Caledonian horticulture on international markets. Once goals were understood, four interrelated analyses were conducted continuously: enabling environment, productivity, structuration, and feasibility analysis. In the enabling environment, analysis of market, institution, and infrastructure highlighted high demands for the species Sticherus flabellatus, well-maintained roads, and legal voids concerning wild harvesting. The productivity analysis on resource availability and harvesting potential pointed out randomness of the resource and its quality, and the rarity of Sticherus flabellatus along with Gleichenia's stringent conditioning needs. A VC structure was put forward based on potential actors' interests and existing resource-related constraints. Governing the VC is through coordinating harvester/tribes in the Gleichenia areas involving locally active associations, and sharing responsibility for value-creation and distribution activities. Finally, the feasibility analysis underlined the importance of reflecting on findings from the previous analyses with regards to set goals in order to identify (mis)matches between expected benefits from the established VC and goals as well as potential vulnerabilities. In this case, a wild-harvesting activity would not allow valorizing horticulture as conceived by local horticulturists since these give preference to controlled replication in delimited spaces and do not consider wild-harvesting as a horticultural activity. Hence, research on controlled replication of Sticherus flabellatus and capacity building of local associations/actors could be appropriate interventions before actual establishment of a Gleichenia VC.

Drawing on the triple helix framework and organizational institutionalism, this article applies a qualitative research approach to analyze structures, institutional logics, power relations that shape inter-organizational relations and the structuration of a knowledge production system in an emerging economy. Findings highlight the emergence of a fifth-helices knowledge production system includes the state, science and education, industry, international actors, and society. The system comprises two major segments, one associated with the traditional command economy and characterized by institutional control that reproduces an ill-adopted and less transparent system based on systemic power. At the border of this system, a marketand quality-oriented segment emerges through marked-oriented evolution and collaborative co-evolution processes driven by institutional agency. The system-level dynamics are characterized by political ambidexterity that enables the state to maintain control by privileging traditional science and education constituencies, and at the same time support the transition of the knowledge production system towards international methodology and quality standards through relational mechanisms such as cooperation, harmonization, and partnership. Our research shows that the proposed framework offers a valuable basis for deriving realistic policy and program recommendations to guide national and international actors in designing interventions and collaboration within knowledge production systems in developing countries.

Agricultural innovation scaling approaches tend to be empirical but do not sufficiently take into account the complex realities of 'softer elements' such as people, supply chains, markets, financing mechanisms, policies and regulations, professional knowledge, power relations, incentives and history. As a consequence, scaling initiatives often do not produce the desired impacts and, in some instances, may even produce undesirable impacts. |Designing scaling strategies that are adaptive to context and available resources requires an understanding of the enabling environment in which the scaling processes are embedded. This can be achieved by conducting an analysis to identify enablers and hinderers influencing farmers' adoption of irrigation and water management technologies and introducing measures to ensure success. The tool described in this working paper provides implementers with a structured guide to carrying out this analysis in a specific context.

The Agricultural Knowledge and Information System (AKIS) in Vietnam has undergone massive changes over the last decades. Initially triggered by an economic reform process (Doi Moi) initiated in 1986, the system was formalized by the first decree on agricultural extension in 1993 (GSRV (Government of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam) (1993) Nghị Định 13/CP Về Công Tác Khuyến Nông (Decree 13/CP (2 March 1993) on the establishment and function the national agricultural extension system). Hanoi) and gradually liberalized over the following years. Along with this liberalization, new spaces opened that allowed a growing plurification of knowledge system actors. However, the traditional orientation towards technology transfer was maintained. In the era of rapid growth since that time, an unprecedented experimentation with different approaches to extension has been set-up, with the government's willingness to allow a more diverse AKIS particularly reflected in the second and, more recently, the third decree on extension. Topics such as food security, income and poverty alleviation have come more into focus, as the move towards a full liberalization of the extension system has continued. The general aims of this chapter are to (a) provide an overview of the historical development of rural advisory and knowledge provision in Vietnam, and how legal frameworks have changed over time, (b) demonstrate how more client-centered extension approaches can be translated and utilized at the field level, and (c) focus on examples of novel approaches to knowledge generation and diffusion, those currently evolving due to initiatives driven by state, private and NGO actors, or developed within the framework of the Uplands Program. The final section provides an outlook on where the extension system stands at this point and what still needs to be done, drawing a differentiated but basically positive conclusion about the willingness to reform and the pace of the reform process in Vietnam. ; The Agricultural Knowledge and Information System (AKIS) in Vietnam has undergone massive changes over the last decades. Initially triggered by an economic reform process (Doi Moi) initiated in 1986, the system was formalized by the first decree on agricultural extension in 1993 (GSRV (Government of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam) (1993) Nghị Định 13/CP Về Công Tác Khuyến Nông (Decree 13/CP (2 March 1993) on the establishment and function the national agricultural extension system). Hanoi) and gradually liberalized over the following years. Along with this liberalization, new spaces opened that allowed a growing plurification of knowledge system actors. However, the traditional orientation towards technology transfer was maintained. In the era of rapid growth since that time, an unprecedented experimentation with different approaches to extension has been set-up, with the government's willingness to allow a more diverse AKIS particularly reflected in the second and, more recently, the third decree on extension. Topics such as food security, income and poverty alleviation have come more into focus, as the move towards a full liberalization of the extension system has continued. The general aims of this chapter are to (a) provide an overview of the historical development of rural advisory and knowledge provision in Vietnam, and how legal frameworks have changed over time, (b) demonstrate how more client-centered extension approaches can be translated and utilized at the field level, and (c) focus on examples of novel approaches to knowledge generation and diffusion, those currently evolving due to initiatives driven by state, private and NGO actors, or developed within the framework of the Uplands Program. The final section provides an outlook on where the extension system stands at this point and what still needs to be done, drawing a differentiated but basically positive conclusion about the willingness to reform and the pace of the reform process in Vietnam.