Suchergebnisse

Abstract The new GATT negotiation launched by the Kennedy administration aimed at raising American exports to the Common Market and at slowing American investments in Western Europe, which had a negative impact on the US balance of payments, but also at preventing the Six from building a common foreign policy, free from American influences. According to Kennedy and his advisers, the creation of an Atlantic free trade community would secure all these ends at the same time. After the rejection by De Gaulle of the British application to the Common Market, which killed the Atlantic free trade area project, the Kennedy Round negotiation became restricted to trade matters. Since it forced European countries to define a common stand toward the United States, its unintended effect was to strengthen the unity of Europe. The Round resulted in important tariff reductions and revealed that the US economy was now fully integrated in the larger world. In spite of this, protectionist interests entrenched in the US Congress objected strongly to this new phase of trade liberalisation.

Abstract
Background
The paper presents an overview of air quality in the 27 member countries of the European Union (EU) and the United Kingdom (previous EU-28), from 2000 to 2017. We reviewed the progress made towards meeting the air quality standards established by the EU Ambient Air Quality Directives (European Council Directive 2008/50/EC) and the World Health Organization (WHO) Air Quality Guidelines by estimating the trends (Mann-Kendal test) in national emissions of main air pollutants, urban population exposure to air pollution, and in mortality related to exposure to ambient fine particles (PM2.5) and tropospheric ozone (O3).

Results
Despite significant reductions of emissions (e.g., sulfur oxides: ~ 80%, nitrogen oxides: ~ 46%, non-methane volatile organic compounds: ~ 44%, particulate matters with a diameter lower than 2.5 µm and 10 µm: ~ 30%), the EU-28 urban population was exposed to PM2.5 and O3 levels widely exceeding the WHO limit values for the protection of human health. Between 2000 and 2017, the annual PM2.5-related number of deaths decreased (- 4.85 per 106 inhabitants) in line with a reduction of PM2.5 levels observed at urban air quality monitoring stations. The rising O3 levels became a major public health issue in the EU-28 cities where the annual O3-related number of premature deaths increased (+ 0.55 deaths per 106 inhabitants).

Conclusions
To achieve the objectives of the Ambient Air Quality Directives and mitigate air pollution impacts, actions need to be urgently taken at all governance levels. In this context, greening and re‐naturing cities and the implementation of fresh air corridors can help meet air quality standards, but also answer to social needs, as recently highlighted by the COVID-19 lockdowns.

BACKGROUND: The paper presents an overview of air quality in the 27 member countries of the European Union (EU) and the United Kingdom (previous EU-28), from 2000 to 2017. We reviewed the progress made towards meeting the air quality standards established by the EU Ambient Air Quality Directives (European Council Directive 2008/50/EC) and the World Health Organization (WHO) Air Quality Guidelines by estimating the trends (Mann-Kendal test) in national emissions of main air pollutants, urban population exposure to air pollution, and in mortality related to exposure to ambient fine particles (PM(2.5)) and tropospheric ozone (O(3)). RESULTS: Despite significant reductions of emissions (e.g., sulfur oxides: ~ 80%, nitrogen oxides: ~ 46%, non-methane volatile organic compounds: ~ 44%, particulate matters with a diameter lower than 2.5 µm and 10 µm: ~ 30%), the EU-28 urban population was exposed to PM(2.5) and O(3) levels widely exceeding the WHO limit values for the protection of human health. Between 2000 and 2017, the annual PM(2.5)-related number of deaths decreased (- 4.85 per 10(6) inhabitants) in line with a reduction of PM(2.5) levels observed at urban air quality monitoring stations. The rising O(3) levels became a major public health issue in the EU-28 cities where the annual O(3)-related number of premature deaths increased (+ 0.55 deaths per 10(6) inhabitants). CONCLUSIONS: To achieve the objectives of the Ambient Air Quality Directives and mitigate air pollution impacts, actions need to be urgently taken at all governance levels. In this context, greening and re‐naturing cities and the implementation of fresh air corridors can help meet air quality standards, but also answer to social needs, as recently highlighted by the COVID-19 lockdowns.