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Recognising the importance of sanitation in human development, several policies and programmes have been formulated and implemented to provide sanitation in India since independence. Despite many efforts, the provision of sanitation, especially in rural areas, has been a challenging task. In this context, the article tries to analyse the evolution of policies and performance of programmes based on the available literature implemented after Independence. It also examines whether the policymakers have taken into account the past lessons while formulating the policy or programme. The analysis reveals that there has been a progressive move in the policies and programmes towards the participatory, decentralised and sustainable management of sanitation. Implementation has been the main problem, but in recent years, more attention has been given in this direction. Even after having much success in achieving sanitation, that is, 100% access to toilets, still, many more challenges persist, especially in terms of sustainability and waste management.

ABSTRACTA distributed database system allows concurrent execution of transactions from multiple users at multiple locations. This paper presents a general scheme of including the effect of interaction between such transactions in the design process of distributed databases. This scheme allows the decision maker to choose the most appropriate design for a distributed database. The interaction effect is a consequence of concurrency control procedures and contention for system resources. Prior research has not included all components of the interaction effect in the design process. A separate module, called an interaction module, was built to measure the interaction effect using a comprehensive simulation model of a general purpose relational distributed database management system (DBMS). The interaction module can be interfaced with any distributed database design system as an add‐on module so that the interaction effect can be included in the design process. A detailed example demonstrates the use of the interaction module in the decision‐making process. Experiments conducted using the module show that the interaction effect can be significant and that it can affect the choice of the design. Experiments were also conducted to measure the sensitivity of design choices under changing input conditions.

Abstract
Data on the urbanization impact on freshwater biota and ecosystem function are limited from many developing countries despite being recognized as a driver for biodiversity loss. To study these impacts, we analysed the species richness and diversity patterns of freshwater gastropods along a gradient of urbanization in a river system around Pune city, India. We observed a significant reduction in species richness, faunal similarity and an increased proportion of non-native species with increasing urbanization. These impacts were prominent in highly urbanized sites of the rivers suggesting biotic homogenization. Our results underscore the great impacts of urbanization on freshwater biota, highlighting the need for further studies in developing regions.