Suchergebnisse

The family is a child's primary context for socialization and greatly affects a child's well-being.Historical contexts show that families have been evolving for centuries due to social and economicfactors, thus resulting in various family structures. A stable, traditional family structure is mostconducive to academic success (Tillman, 2007). Much research has found that children raised in anon-traditional home are at a disadvantage (Astone & McLanahan, 1991; Halpern-Meekin & Tach,2008). The research on the consequences of single-parent families suggests children of single parentfamilies are more likely to be impoverished, to break the law, to abuse drugs, to do poorly in school, tobecome pregnant before the age of twenty, and to have emotional and behavioral problems. Inaddition, these negative effects are not short-term, but carry into adulthood and manifest themselves inproblems in relationships and occupation. However, single-parent families resulting from widowhoodshow less harmful effects than divorced or non-union birth households. Although the presence ofanother adult may bring increased financial and time resources, research indicates children in stepfamiliesmay be at an even greater disadvantage than children residing in stable single-parent homes.Lastly, cohabitating families often create less defined family roles, lower levels of parental support,supervision, and involvement, and greater family conflict (Tillman, 2007).

Throughout American history, schools and educational leaders have been in the spotlight because ofthe eminent task of preparing the young of our nation for competition within a global economy and themarketplace of ideas. Educational leaders have moved through the stages of management, industrialefficiency, and cultural leadership finally concluding that school management requires more thanefficiency and organization (Brickham, 1996). With the advent of tough-minded management and therealization of the difference between a leader and a manager, combined with an increase in the highschool dropout rate, awareness developed that something was not working in American Schools(Batten, 1989). Changes in the organizational landscape of America gave rise to the idea of theprincipal as the cultural leader (Rollins and Roberts, 1998). This plan also, was doomed to demise. Thebeginning of accountability spurred the popularity of the idea of the principal as the instructional leader.This initiative was the basis for holding someone accountable when the school failed.

The positive and negative effects of high-stakes testing are well-documented (Gratz, 2000; Heubertand Hauser, 1999). The development of an accountability system that is based on the results ofstudents' tests has intensified the pressure to perform for students and schools (Gratz). Many policydecisions and often the promotion of students are determined by these test results – hence the term"high-stakes testing" (Heubert and Hauser). Because of the high stakes involved, pressure forimproving scores has an impact on teachers and their practices (Heubert and Hauser; Merrow, 2002).