Suchergebnisse

Unlike other regions of the world, the policy framework in Europe is in principle favourable to extensive livestock farming. EU policies recognise the multiple values of pastoralism and its contributions in terms of cultural heritage, environmental management and territorial cohesion. Recognising that these public goods are not sustainable without remuneration, the EU supports pastoralists with direct and indirect measures, including subsidies. These are considered as forms of compensation and reward for producers operating in Less Favoured Areas and High Nature Value settings. However, over recent decades, the number of extensive livestock farms has declined sharply, generational renewal amongst pastoralists is scanty and mountainous, island, and inner territories all over Europe are undergoing processes of socio-economic and agro-ecological desertification. The outcomes of the CAP political and financial commitment in pastoral contexts are hence quite disappointing. Translating good intentions and societal appreciation into effective social facilities and economic returns appears to be a major challenge for policy makers and administrators across Europe. On the one hand, the European Green Deal and its 'Farm to Fork' strategy show high levels of ambition in reorienting agriculture and enhancing the transition to more sustainable food systems in Europe. On the other hand, the long-awaited reform of the Common Agricultural Policy has not addressed its fundamental inconsistencies in technical, administrative and political terms. In a policy framework also influenced by broader trade and political agreements, CAP measures are more likely to support intensification of livestock production, than to favour extensive pastoral systems. The EU institutional architecture and policy domain represent important drivers of uncertainty for European pastoralists, who must continually navigate through multiple, fragmented and sometimes conflicting measures, rules and requirements that seem ill-suited to their operating principles, strategies and needs. ; The writing of this paper was funded through a European Research Council Advanced Grant to PASTRES (Pastoralism, Uncertainty, Resilience: Global Lessons from the Margins), Grant number 740342.

The EU's Common Agriculture Policy (CAP) accounts for about 40% of the overall EU budget. After its initial mandate to recover agriculture and food production in Europe in the aftermath of the II World War, CAP has been reformed through time to better take into account different aspects of European rural livelihoods. Subsidies from such policy have come to contribute filling the gap between harsher living conditions for EU rural dwellers (ie. lower access to basic services) and to compensate the rural-urban income divide (ie. rural workers in EU gain as an average about 60% of their urban peers – EU, 2011). Since the 1990s reforms have reframed the CAP 'welfare system' within a more multifunctional perspective; 2013 reform indicates that agriculture aims not only at delivering high quality food but also helps to manage our environment and fight climate change.

1: Rural world, migration and agriculture in the EU-Mediterranean countries: an introduction -- 2: Restructuring of agriculture and the rural world in EUMed countries -- 3: Mobility and migrations in the rural areas of the EU -- 4: Rural destination areas: impacts and practices -- 5: Rural origin areas: impacts and practices -- 6: Mobility and migrations in Mediterranean Europe: the case of agro-pastoralism -- 7: Conclusions.

Pastoralism is a characteristic livelihood system for the whole Mediterranean basin. From Morocco to Turkey, from Sardinia to Libya, herding societies are a common feature of all countries and civilisations that have inhabited the region. Though the material and symbolic wealth of pastoral groups is an integral part to the Mediterranean livelihood as well as cultural systems (i.e. milk, lambs, transhumance, etc…), these societies have long suffered various forms of socio-political and economic marginalisation. While the lands and environments herders insisted upon have become a main target for modernization policies, from natural reserve to farming expansion, from mining exploitation to livestock market off-takes, their rights have been seldom acknowledged and their technical skills and institutional capacities hardly recognized. Recently, low population density, remoteness and political marginality have made pastoral areas the prime targets for state retrenchment under Structural Adjustment Programs and cuts to public budgets. On the other side important potentials exist for a fairer development of these communities, such as the increasing consumption demand for animal proteins, together with the recognition of pastoralism as an environmental-friendly natural resource management, and processes of enhanced autonomy and local participation in political decision-making offered by recent reforms implying decentralisation and devolution. During the last decades, access to and control of resources in pastoral areas have gone through specific transformation processes, which have reshaped to a large extent pastoralists dependence on their natural resource base and enhanced integration into state and market dynamics. Yet the outcomes of these processes are yet to prove beneficial to pastoral communities, whose sense of marginalisation, disillusionment and resentment towards state or regional institutions is an important element that helps explaining to an extent processes of political radicalisation in many pastoral regions. As a result, pastoral groups seem increasingly exposed to climatic vagaries, increasingly trapped in the vicious circle characterised by high levels of food insecurity, conflict and environmental degradation. Within the climate change framework the vulnerability of these communities to extremes climatic events, i.e. drought, is being increasingly acknowledged (WISP, 2007). This paper addresses the dynamics perceived, the problems faced and the applied coping strategies by some pastoral communities inhabiting the Middle East North Africa (MENA) region. With case studies from Morocco and Tunisia and a wider regional analysis which also include cases from Jordan, Syria and Palestine, this paper addresses the shifting vulnerability of pastoral communities under changing environmental and socio-political domains. An innovative participatory tool, the historical livelihood matrix is presented and brought into discussion as an appropriate tool which enables discussing livelihood dynamics in an historical perspective, taking into account the gender as well as generational perspectives. The research work has been undertaken within the ICARDA Maghreb and Mashreq program, complemented with some other development works undertaken by the author in the region with the NGO Ucodep. ; (Product of workshop No. 4 at the 10th MRM 2009).

Published online: 21 January 2022 ; Today there is a disjuncture between migration flows that are complex, mixed and constantly evolving and the emerging global migration governance paradigm that seeks to impose clarity, certainty, regularity and order. Addressing the gap between policies and realities, this article explores lessons for migration policy and governance from mobile pastoralists' experience. Using examples from human migration flows within and between Europe and Africa and insights from pastoral systems from India, Italy and Kenya, the article identifies important similarities between international migration and pastoral mobility. We focus on four interconnections: both international migration and pastoral mobility show multi-directional and fragmented patterns; both involve multiple, intersecting socio-economic, political, cultural and environmental drivers; both must respond to non-linear systems, where critical junctures and tipping points undermine clear prediction and forecasts, making social navigation and reliability management more useful concepts than risk-based prediction and control and finally for both uncertainty is not conceived of as a state of crisis but an inherent feature, pregnant with possibility and hope. Building on these four points, and drawing from pastoralists' experiences, we propose some methodological, practical and policy reflections for bridging the disjuncture between migration realities on the ground and global migration governance policies and discourses. ; This paper has emerged out of conversations generated by the PASTRES project (pastoralism, uncertainty, resilience: lessons from the margins; pastres.org), which all authors are affiliated with. The PASTRES project is supported by an Advanced Grant from the European Research Council (PASTRES (Pastoralism, Uncertainty, Resilience: Lessons from the Margins, pastres.org, Grant number 740342). Additional support for the work came from the Canada Excellence Research Chair in Migration and Integration (CERC migration), at Ryerson University, where the corresponding author is based. The PASTRES project has supported the collection and analysis of the data that are presented and discussed in Sect. 3. The PASTRES project and the CERC migration programme supported the working time dedicated to the analytical reflections and writing up presented in section.

Today there is a disjuncture between migration flows that are complex, mixed and constantly evolving and the emerging global migration governance paradigm that seeks to impose clarity, certainty, regularity and order. Addressing the gap between policies and realities, this article explores lessons for migration policy and governance from mobile pastoralists' experience. Using examples from human migration flows within and between Europe and Africa and insights from pastoral systems from India, Italy and Kenya, the article identifies important similarities between international migration and pastoral mobility. We focus on four interconnections: both international migration and pastoral mobility show multi-directional and fragmented patterns; both involve multiple, intersecting socio-economic, political, cultural and environmental drivers; both must respond to non-linear systems, where critical junctures and tipping points undermine clear prediction and forecasts, making social navigation and reliability management more useful concepts than risk-based prediction and control and finally for both uncertainty is not conceived of as a state of crisis but an inherent feature, pregnant with possibility and hope. Building on these four points, and drawing from pastoralists' experiences, we propose some methodological, practical and policy reflections for bridging the disjuncture between migration realities on the ground and global migration governance policies and discourses.

This article provides a critical analysis of the evolution of the policy, institutional and legislative frameworks impinging on the livelihoods of pastoral communities in the different flanks of the Mediterranean, and of the underpinning narratives, with a view to support a better informed and more consistent policy framework. The Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union is paramount in defining evolving and shrinking pastoralists' room for manoeuvre, not only in Europe but also in its neighbouring regions. In Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, despite a quite un-harmonised and diversified ideological and institutional setting, agricultural policies in the different countries seem to converge to a very similar and consistent framework. Throughout the Mediterranean, the growing compliance with policy measures, institutional regulations and legislative rules have exposed agro-pastoral farms to increasing degrees of uncertainty and dependence on public subsidies, loan schemes and market prices, making their navigation decreasingly sustainable.

This publication is available under a Creative Commons license that allows copying and distributing the publication, only in its entirety, as long as it is attributed to the Open Society Foundations and used for noncommercial educational or public policy purposes. Photographs may not be used separately from the publication. ; The study seeks to analyse the broader framework in which the rights of migrants and workers are violated, going beyond the focus on the abuse endured by migrant workers in southern Italy—which has been reported on exhaustively over the last decade by the media and civil society organisations— and the rather narrow actions by the EU and member states to counter the exploitation. The aim is to investigate the multiple pressures on the agriculture system from the restructuring of agri-food chains and the factors pushing farmers to recruit migrant workers irregularly, profiting from their vulnerable condition.