Suchergebnisse

Der Anbau von Gemüse in urbanen Gebieten stellt eine nachhaltige Strategie zur Nahrungsmittelsicherheit dar. Obwohl Gemüseanbau oft als Überlebensstrategie armer Bevölkerungsgruppen betrachtet wird, praktizieren ihn städtische Bewohner aller Einkommensschichten. Angesichts wachsender Bevölkerungszahlen in den Städten und steigender Armut wird der Anbau von Nahrungsmitteln zu einem entscheidenden Faktor der Existenzgrundlage, auch wenn er in vielen Entwicklungsländern – so auch in Ghana – offiziell untersagt ist. Im städtischen Großraum Tamale, im Norden Ghanas, wird Gemüseanbau durch Landknappheit, unklare Besitzverhältnisse und Wassermangel beeinträchtigt. Farmer weichen deshalb auf Flächen entlang temporärer Bachläufe, Abwasserkanäle, Erdlöcher, Brunnen, kaputter Abflussrohre und Rückhaltebecken aus. Urbanisierung und steigende Marktwerte für Land sowie unregulierte Grundstücksmärkte haben zu einem Anstieg an Landverkäufen in urbanen und peri-urbanen Gebieten geführt. Dabei konkurriert urbane Landwirtschaft mit anderen – ökonomisch gewinnträchtigeren – Formen der Landnutzung, wie beispielsweise der Industrie und des Wohnungsbaus. Für die Farmer besteht das größte Problem des rasanten urbanen Wachstums in den sich verändernden Landnutzungsmustern. Diese haben nicht nur zu einer Verringerung primärer Ackerflächen geführt, sondern auch zu geringerer landwirtschaftlicher Produktivität, einem niedrigen Lebensstandard und Nahrungsmittelunsicherheit. Die Situation im städtischen Großraum Tamale und den umliegenden Gebieten bildet diese Veränderungen besonders eindrücklich ab. Die vorliegende Arbeit analysiert die sozio-politische Konfiguration, die Ressourcenflüsse in Aktivitäten der urbanen Landwirtschaft, verstanden als Produktion und Vermarktung landwirtschaftlicher und gartenbaulicher Produkte, kanalisiert. Sie untersucht, wie die Farmer diesen Prozess durch verschiedene Governance-Systeme in ihren jeweiligen sozio-ökonomischen Umgebungen bewältigen und es notwendig machen, verschiedene Technologien in unterschiedlichem Maße zu bewerten und einzusetzen. Nach einer allgemeinen Stichprobenumfrage in Kombination mit einem Participatory-Appraisal-Ansatz zur Feststellung der spezifischen Eigenschaften des urbanen und peri-urbanen landwirtschaftlichen Systems, habe ich ein Mixed-Method-Design für meine Studie angewandt. Mit Hilfe des Global Positioning Systems (GPS) erfasste ich quantitative räumliche Daten aller freistehenden Anbauflächen. Mit einer unbemannten Drohne wurde eine Luftbildvermessung durchgeführt und mit der ArcGIS Software kartiert. Zusätzlich habe ich Google Earth-Aufnahmen mit Erinnerungen von Farmern trianguliert. Qualitative Daten erhob ich durch Gruppendiskussionen, mit Hilfe teilnehmender Fotografie, in Interviews und durch teilnehmende Beobachtung. Die Forschung fand zwischen Oktober 2013 und Februar 2015 statt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass sich die landwirtschaftlich genutzte Fläche in Tamale und Umgebung zwischen 2008 und 2014 trotz gleichzeitiger Entstehung neuer Gemüsefelder an den Stadträndern um 8,3 % verringerte. Obwohl die landwirtschaftlichen Flächen weniger werden, ist Gemüseanbau kein temporäres Phänomen. Der Gemüseanbau hat eine außergewöhnliche Resistenz gegen verschiedene Widerstände bewiesen und ohne externe Initiative oder Unterstützung eine Nische eingenommen. Er profitiert dabei von seiner Nähe zum Markt, der hohen Nachfrage nach schnell verderblichen Produkten und den fehlenden Möglichkeiten, Waren gekühlt zu transportieren. Obwohl Farmer immer wieder ihren Standort wechseln, sind andere Freiflächen – oftmals diejenigen, die als Bauland ungeeignet sind – das gesamte letzte Jahrhundert hindurch landwirtschaftlich genutzt worden. Die Studie zeigt, dass Konflikte zwischen traditionellen- und Regierungsinstitutionen um Landbesitz und -management die Nahrungsmittelsicherheit nicht nur gefährden, sondern gleichzeitig auch zu innovativen städtischen Versorgungsstrukturen führen. Im Zusammenspiel aus freundschaftlichen Beziehungen und Netzwerken zwischen Farmern und anderen Akteuren sind innovative Strategien hervorgegangen. Beispielsweise werden Überflutungsgebiete oder öffentliche Grünanlagen kultiviert, die weder von Chiefs verkauft noch von der Regierung bebaut werden können. Auch erschließen sich die Akteure den Kontakt zu Nichtregierungsorganisationen, die in der urbanen Landwirtschaft eine Überlebensstrategie und eine zukunftsfähige Alternative zur Herstellung von Nahrungsmittelsicherheit sehen und die Gemüsegärtner folglich unterstützen. Komplexe sozio-politische Realitäten wie der Mangel an verlässlichen legalen Rahmenbedingungen für städtischen Anbau führen durch unterschiedliche Landmanagementsysteme zu Konflikten zwischen "traditionellen" und staatlichen Institutionen. Akteure in diesen Konflikten sind Chieftaincy-Institutionen, die Landkommission, das Administrative Office of Stool Lands, sowie die Stadt- und Landschaftsplanungsbehörde. In ihrem Zusammenspiel kreieren diese Institutionen Räume, in denen Ressourcenzugang und –kontrolle in Form historischer Zugänge, öffentlicher Diskurse und Technologien immer wieder neu geformt werden. Zum Beispiel instrumentalisieren Farmer historische Erzählungen oder eignen sich Entwicklungsdiskurse an, um Landzugang einzufordern. Chiefs hingegen schöpfen ihre Autorität aus öffentlichen Diskursen, die sie als gewohnheitsmäßige Landeigentümer legitimieren. Sie beziehen sich darüber hinaus auf die Verfassung aus dem Jahr 1992, die Chiefs mit Machtressourcen ausstattet, indem sie ihnen erlaubt, Landfragen direkt zu klären sowie enteignetes Land an die Besitzer zurückzugeben, sofern die Regierung es nicht mehr benötigt. Um ihre Ansprüche auf Land geltend zu machen, errichten Farmer hingegen Umzäunungen, entfernen territoriale Markierungspfosten und zapfen Wasserleitungen an. Nichtregierungsorganisationen unterstützen die Farmer, indem sie ihnen Zugang zu Technologien wie solarbetriebene Bewässerung, Treibhäuser und verbessertes Saatgut ermöglichen. Der Zugang von Frauen zu landwirtschaftlich nutzbarem Land in einer mehrheitlich männlichen dominierten Produktionsweise wird erschwert durch eine permanente Rekonstruktion von Tradition, die eine männliche Herrschaft in Landangelegenheiten reklamiert. Dennoch verfügen Frauen über eine Vielzahl flexibler Strategien, um sich trotz Knappheit Zugang zu Land zu verschaffen und ihrer Rolle in der Versorgung des Haushalts nachzukommen. An Bewässerungsstandorten, die von Regierungsbehörden kontrolliert und verwaltet werden, wurden Bewirtschaftungspraktiken zur Unterstützung von Frauen eingeführt, die es den Frauen ermöglichen, direkten Landzugang zu erhalten, anstatt wie gewohnheitsrechtlich Zugang zu Land ausschließlich über ihre Ehemänner zu erhalten. Hierdurch ergaben sich Veränderungen in den Besitzverhältnissen der Frauen gegenüber Land. Landbesitz von Frauen in der Umgebung von Bewässerungsstandorten stellt ein bislang ungeschildertes Phänomen in der Literatur über Gender und Ressourcenzugang in Ghana und in Afrika im Allgemeinen dar. Die theoretischen Implikationen der Studie beziehen sich auf die Erkenntnis, dass Farmer Akteure sind, die überlegte Entscheidungen zwischen unterschiedlichen ihnen zur Verfügung stehenden Governance-Systemen treffen, um ihre Interessen bestmöglich durchzusetzen. Indem sie beispielsweise innerhalb ihres Netzwerks aus diversen Unterstützern wie Nichtregierungsorganisationen, Chiefs und Regierungsbehören manövrieren, verhandeln sie effektiv den Zugang zu und die Kontrolle über Ressourcen. Auch nutzen Farmer diverse Foren wie zum Beispiel Versammlungen und Gerichtsverhandlungen, um ihre Ansprüche durchzusetzen und zu rechtfertigen und um bestehende Governance-Stukturen zu hinterfragen. Sie ignorieren administrative Vorgaben oder umgehen sie, um wiederum diejenigen Governance-Systeme zu stabilisieren, mit denen sie sich verbündet haben. Im Prozess des Entscheidens für ein bestimmtes Governance-System und damit gegen ein anderes, entsteht ein neues Governance-System. In einigen Fällen werden mehrere Governance-Systeme miteinander verknüpft, so dass neue, an die Interessen des jeweiligen Akteurs angepasste hybride Systeme entstehen. Zusammenfassend lässt sich feststellen, dass Interaktionen zwischen Akteuren nicht nur Szenarien von Kooperation und Konflikt darstellen, sondern darüber hinaus auch Prozesse der gegenseitigen Gestaltung und der Ko-Konstruktion von Governance-Systemen sind. Diese spielen eine entscheidende Rolle dafür, wie Gender, Landknappheit und Nahrungsmittelsicherheit mit dem Zugang zu und der Kontrolle von Ressourcen in urbanen und peri-urbanen Gebieten interagieren. Die auf Grundlage dieser Ergebnisse formulierte Empfehlung lautet, dass Stadtplanungspolitiken das Phänomen der urbanen Landwirtschaft integrieren müssen, wenn städtische Armut verringert und Nahrungsmittelsicherheit gewährleistet werden soll. Überflutungsgebiete oder Grünflächen sollten Farmern legal und transparent im Hinblick auf die Zuteilungsmechanismen zur Verfügung gestellt werden. Neue Formen von städtischer Landwirtschaft wie Gemüseanbau in Säcken oder andere innovative Methoden, die der sozialen Realität der Stadtbewohner angepasst sind, sollten eingeführt und die Kapazitäten der Farmer gestärkt werden, sich diese anzueignen. Schlagwörter: Gemüseproduktion, Technologie, Ressourcen, Beziehungen, Legitimität, Zugang, Governance ; Vegetable farming in Ghana`s urban areas is mostly a sustainable livelihood strategy. Alt-hough it is considered a means of survival for the poor, vegetable farming is practiced by urban dwellers across the income spectrum. As poverty and urban population increase, so is the need to supplement income with privately cultivated foodstuff. In Ghana's Northern Regional capital of Tamale, vegetable farming is constrained by a number of factors including land availability, land tenure security, and access to water. As a result, many vegetable farmers have resorted to cultivating lands along streams and canals, dugouts, wells, broken sewers, and reservoirs. The scarcity of land for vegetable farming in the urban and peri-urban areas of Ghana is as the result of competition. Farming competes with other land use forms such as industry and housing, both of which attract higher economic rents. The most serious threat to farmers posed by urbanization is the changing land use pattern. Changes in land use have resulted in less availability of prime agricultural land for farming which has lowered agricultural production, food security, and standard of living. Such is the situation in the Tamale metropolitan area and its surroundings in Ghana's Northern Region. This study analyzes the socio-political process by which resource flows are directed towards the production and selling of vegetables in Ghana`s urban areas. It examines how this process is managed by farmers through different governance systems in diverse socio-economic environments which prompt them to value the different technologies differently. I employed a mixed-method approach for this study after a general random sampled survey, and a participatory appraisal was conducted to characterize the urban and peri-urban agricultural system. I collected quantitative spatial data by measuring all open space cultivated areas with a Global Positioning Systems (GPS). Aerial maps were obtained with an Un-manned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) and mapped with ArcGIS software. Images from Google Earth maps triangulated farmers' recollection. Qualitative data were collected using focus group discussions, participatory photography, interviews and participant observation. This study was carried out between October 2013 and February 2015. Results reveal that the area of cultivated farmlands has decreased by 8.3% between 2008 and 2014, even as new vegetable sites emerged in the peri-urban fringes. Even though these farming areas are reducing, vegetable farming is not a temporary phenomenon. It has shown a remarkable resistance against various constraints and maintains a niche without external initiative or support as it takes advantage of market proximity, the high demand for perishable cash crops and the typical lack of refrigerated transport. Although farmers change their location over time, other open areas - usually those unsuited for construction - have been under continuous cropping for the past century. This study found that conflict between traditional and government institutions over land ownership and management has inadvertently led to innovative provisioning in vegetable production in the city, even though it has simultaneously threatened its contribution to food and nutritional security. Innovative strategies for continual vegetable production have emerged as a result of cordial relationships and networks that have developed between farmers and other actors. For example, farmers cultivate public green zones and floodplains which cannot legally be sold by chiefs nor used to construct government buildings. Farmers are also building alliances with Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO) that see urban agriculture as a viable activity and survival strategy for urban and peri-urban dwellers to maintain agricultural activity. Furthermore, the lack of a legal framework for urban farming in the Tamale area has led to conflicts between traditional and state institutions with implications for land tenure management systems. The conflict is often between the various chieftaincy institutions, the Lands Commission, the Administrative Office of Stool Lands, and the Town and Country Planning Department. Claim to land and other resources is made through historical recollections, public discourses, and technology. For example, farmers use stories from past events to legitimise their claims over land or restructure development discourses while chiefs rely on public discussions and discourses which support their rights as customary landowners to lay claim to lands. Chiefs also make use of the statutory laws and the 1992 Constitution which empowers the chieftaincy institution and puts within its jurisdiction lands not claimed by the government. To circumvent boundaries created by chiefs and others, farmers employ technologies such as fencing and pipe-borne water connections systems. Their efforts are supplemented by non-governmental organizations who furnish them with equipment such as solar-powered irrigation facilities, greenhouses, and improved seeds in order to boost their production. Moreover, women's access to farmland has always been hampered by the reconstruction of traditions that support male dominance in land affairs. However, some recent policy developments have renegotiated the condition of access to farmlands in favour of women. For instance, the introduction of gender-sensitive agricultural practices on government irrigation sites has resulted in the allocation of plots of land directly to women as opposed to through their male relatives as it was previously done. This has revolutionised the traditional gender roles in agriculture and has empowered women through primary land ownership. Women's ownership of land on irrigation sites is a novel finding that contributes to the broader literature on gender and resource access in Ghana and Africa. The theoretical implication of this study is that farmers' choice of, or relationship to, various local, national, and international actors is not foreordained but is instead based, to a large extent, on pragmatism. For example, by shifting alliances between non-governmental organisations and the government or supreme chiefs, they facilitate cooperation and possible negotiation for access and control over resources in their interests. Farmers also use multiple forums like meetings and courts to be able to gain legitimacy and challenge existing governance systems. Actors sometimes ignore or employ distinct strands of governance or undermine them to achieve their aims. These challenges are often used to gain legitimacy for the governance systems they are allied with. In the process of choosing one governance system over another, a new governance system comes into being. In other cases, combinations of different governance systems are forced to construct new hybrid systems tailored to an actor's interest. To conclude, the interplay between the various actors (farmers, traditional chiefs, government and non-governmental agencies) is not always a simple case of cooperation or conflict. Instead, it is a malleable process of mutual reshaping and co-construction of the governance systems which reconfigure gender roles, improve access to scarce lands, and increase food security. It is my strong recommendation that urban planning policy makers integrate agriculture into the larger discourse about poverty reduction and the alleviation of food insecurity. Green zones and flood-prone government lands in the urban areas which are currently been wasted should be allocated to farmers for food cultivation. This, however, must come with clearly defined mandates and guidelines that err on the side of transparency in land allocation and ownership. Innovative methods such as the farming of vegetables in sacks and other locally suitable means of maximizing production should be introduced alongside the strengthening of farmers' capacity to adopt those means.

Concerns about the implications of COVID-19 on agriculture and food security in Sub-Saharan Africa abound. Containment measures in response to the pandemic have markedly different outcomes depending on the degree of enforcement of the measures and the existing vulnerabilities pre-COVID. In this descriptive study, we document the possible impacts of the pandemic on bean production and food security using data collected from March to April 2020 in eleven countries in four sub-regions in Sub-Saharan Africa. The results reveal that COVID-19 created significant bean production challenges across the sub-regions, including low access to seed, farm inputs, hired labor, and agricultural finance. We also show that COVID-19 threatens to reverse gains made in the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals number 1 and 2. Countries in Southern and Eastern Africa are likely to suffer temporal food shortages than those in Western and Central Africa. Although governments have responded by offering economic stimulus packages, much needs to be done to enable the sub-sector to recover from ruins caused by the pandemic. We recommend building sustainable and resilient food systems through strengthening and enabling public-private partnerships. Governments should invest directly in input supply systems and short food supply chains through digital access and food delivery.

Der Anbau von Gemüse in urbanen Gebieten stellt eine nachhaltige Strategie zur Nahrungsmittelsicherheit dar. Obwohl Gemüseanbau oft als Überlebensstrategie armer Bevölkerungsgruppen betrachtet wird, praktizieren ihn städtische Bewohner aller Einkommensschichten. Angesichts wachsender Bevölkerungszahlen in den Städten und steigender Armut wird der Anbau von Nahrungsmitteln zu einem entscheidenden Faktor der Existenzgrundlage, auch wenn er in vielen Entwicklungsländern – so auch in Ghana – offiziell untersagt ist. Im städtischen Großraum Tamale, im Norden Ghanas, wird Gemüseanbau durch Landkn...

The outbreak of coronavirus was expected to adversely affect African countries more than any other region in the world. This assertion was based on the existing conditions in sub-Saharan Africa that exposed the region to the dire consequences of the pandemic. Previously existing underlying conditions that affected the food system include a high dependence on trade for inputs supply, the adverse effects of climate change, crop pests and diseases, poverty, low input use, weak institutions and ineffective poli­cies, and insecurity and conflicts. We collected data from farmers, aggregators, bean research coordina­tors, and urban and peri-urban consumers in five Eastern African countries in order to describe the immediate impacts of the pandemic on the bean value chain. Access to seed and labor appear to be the most critical impacts of the pandemic on bean production. There are observable differences in patterns and frequency of bean consumption in these regions, suggesting that the effect of the pandemic depends on the level of implementation of containment measures and pre–COVID-19 underlying conditions that affect the food systems. In the mid to long-term, the pandemic may disrupt food systems, resulting in hunger, malnutrition, and food insecurity. Thus, governments should support farmers and businesses in becoming resilient to exogenous shocks through increased efficiency in supply chains, capacity building, and the adoption of modern digital technology.

This chapter shows how sustainability in agri-food supply chains has been hampered or enhanced during the pandemic. We demonstrate this by applying pathways that producers and consumers in sub-Saharan Africa pursued during the pandemic, as Schmitt et al. (2016) argued. The chapter focuses primarily on two Sub-regions in sub-Saharan Africa: Eastern and Southern Africa. The data used are drawn from a survey conducted by the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture in collaboration with National agricultural research partners in nine countries. Six countries in Eastern Africa countries; Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda, and three countries in Southern Africa; Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Because of small samples per country and acknowledgment that they are not representational of the status of agri-food systems' sustainability in the focus countries, we classify them as cases and present them under different sustainability themes: localized input supply and food system sustainability, diversification and Resilience, and consumer behavior.

Concerns about the implications of COVID-19 on agriculture and food security in Sub-Saharan Africa abound. Containment measures in response to the pandemic have markedly different outcomes depending on the degree of enforcement of the measures and the existing vulnerabilities pre-COVID. In this descriptive study, we document the possible impacts of the pandemic on bean production and food security using data collected from March to April 2020 in eleven countries in four sub-regions in Sub-Saharan Africa. The results reveal that COVID-19 created significant bean production challenges across the sub-regions, including low access to seed, farm inputs, hired labor, and agricultural finance. We also show that COVID-19 threatens to reverse gains made in the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals number 1 and 2. Countries in Southern and Eastern Africa are likely to suffer temporal food shortages than those in Western and Central Africa. Although governments have responded by offering economic stimulus packages, much needs to be done to enable the sub-sector to recover from ruins caused by the pandemic. We recommend building sustainable and resilient food systems through strengthening and enabling public-private partnerships. Governments should invest directly in input supply systems and short food supply chains through digital access and food delivery.

Non-governmental organizations (NGO) have become quite prominent in the field of international development in recent decades. Even though, NGO have taken the centre stage in the fight against poverty, social injustice and human rights most are considered weak due to their dependence on funding from government and international aid bodies. This research activity highlights the probable values and weaknesses plaguing the civil society in Cameroon. Due to the pressures of obtaining and maintaining funding, less effort is placed on management leading to a lack of accountability and inefficiency in services offered to the public. The absence of a common platform for NGO makes coordination of their activities unrealistic. In our discussion we intend to propose ways by which NGOs can synergize their action plans. The paper will end by highlighting the distance NGOs have covered as development actors in Cameroon with recommendations deduced to valorise NGOs existence in Cameroon. ; Open-Access Publikationsfonds 2016 ; peerReviewed

Der Anbau von Gemüse in urbanen Gebieten stellt eine nachhaltige Strategie zur Nahrungsmittelsicherheit dar. Obwohl Gemüseanbau oft als Überlebensstrategie armer Bevölkerungsgruppen betrachtet wird, praktizieren ihn städtische Bewohner aller Einkommensschichten. Angesichts wachsender Bevölkerungszahlen in den Städten und steigender Armut wird der Anbau von Nahrungsmitteln zu einem entscheidenden Faktor der Existenzgrundlage, auch wenn er in vielen Entwicklungsländern – so auch in Ghana – offiziell untersagt ist. Im städtischen Großraum Tamale, im Norden Ghanas, wird Gemüseanbau durch Landkn...

While most of the literature on park management and nature conservation has focused on the negative implications for local people's livelihoods, fewer studies have empirically analysed local people's strategies in responding to these policies and renegotiating their position to continue their traditional livelihoods using their traditional knowledge and legal systems. This study contributes to the current literature on nature conservation by focusing on the impacts of nationally and internationally driven nature conservation policies on indigenous people and local communities (IPLCs) and collective strategies and responses to such policies and initiatives to continue their livelihood and cultural practices. We employ a qualitative research approach, using the convivial conservation theoretical lens to analyse the data collected. We conclude that conservation policies have worsened existing livelihoods and constrained the improvement of indigenous people's livelihoods and local communities. Yet, IPLCs have devised coping mechanisms to deal with the negative effects of these conservation interventions, which include resistance to some conservation policies, agricultural intensification, and involvement in commercial activities. We argue that the convivial conservation approach may offer viable solutions to existing conflicts by promoting human and non-human coexistence, based on indigenous and local people's knowledge and practices.

Africa's agriculture and food systems were already grappling with challenges such as climate change and weather variability, pests and disease, and regional conflicts. With rising new cases of COVID 19 propelling various African governments to enforce strict restrictions of varying degrees to curb the spread. Thus, the pandemic posed unprecedented shocks on agriculture and food supply chains in Sub Saharan Africa. In this study, we use survey data collected from nine countries in Central, Eastern, and Southern, Africa to understand the immediate impact of COVID-19 on production, distribution, and consumption of common beans, and possible food security implications. Descriptive analysis of data collected from bean farmers, aggregators, processors, bean regional coordinators, and mechanization dealers reveal that COVID-19 and government restrictions had impacted the availability and cost of farm inputs and labour, distribution, and consumption of beans in Eastern and Southern Africa. The immediate impacts were dire in Southern Africa with Central Africa slightly impacted. The production and distribution challenges negatively impacted on frequency and patterns of food consumption in households in Africa. Thus, the pandemic poses a greater risk to food security and poverty in the region. Governments could play a significant role in supporting the needs of smallholder farmers, traders and other actors through provision of subsidized agricultural inputs.

Africa's agriculture and food systems were already grappling with challenges such as climate change and weather variability, pests and disease, and regional conflicts. With rising new cases of COVID 19 propelling various African governments to enforce strict restrictions of varying degrees to curb the spread. Thus, the pandemic posed unprecedented shocks on agriculture and food supply chains in Sub Saharan Africa. In this study, we use survey data collected from nine countries in Central, Eastern, and Southern, Africa to understand the immediate impact of COVID-19 on production, distribution, and consumption of common beans, and possible food security implications. Descriptive analysis of data collected from bean farmers, aggregators, processors, bean regional coordinators, and mechanization dealers reveal that COVID-19 and government restrictions had impacted the availability and cost of farm inputs and labour, distribution, and consumption of beans in Eastern and Southern Africa. The immediate impacts were dire in Southern Africa with Central Africa slightly impacted. The production and distribution challenges negatively impacted on frequency and patterns of food consumption in households in Africa. Thus, the pandemic poses a greater risk to food security and poverty in the region. Governments could play a significant role in supporting the needs of smallholder farmers, traders and other actors through provision of subsidized agricultural inputs.

Feminist scholars and activists have drawn attention to the importance of women's land rights, and studies focused on irrigation have explored the gendered relationships between land and water rights. Yet little of this work has focused on the relationship between land and water rights for domestic and productive purposes more broadly. Within rural communities, women and men have different rights to both land and water. We explore these interconnected relationships using community profiles, focus group discussions, and in-depth interviews from two communities as well as survey data collected from multiple adult members of rural households in Kilifi County, Kenya. Using a bundle of rights framework, we find that few individuals hold the complete bundle of rights over water, and the extent to which the rights are acknowledged by others and enforceable varies by the land-water tenure system. The full bundle of rights to water is most likely to be complete and most robust for men who have private water points on household land they hold. Even then, other people may assert claims to water at the water point, although these claims may involve negotiation or payment. Many water rights across the land-tenure systems are shared with others rather than being held by one individual. As such, the ability to negotiate water access is particularly important. The duration of the rights, or the length of time for which the rights are held, is embedded in social relations and exchange, particularly on others' household land. Women more than men seem to maintain a complicated set of social networks that allow them to negotiate for water from other women who manage the water transactions. The process of negotiation needs to be re-articulated each time. Thus, the duration of these rights to water depends on the ongoing relationships.