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The persistency of poverty around the world is one of the most serious problems that humanity has to face, so in order to arise awareness, it is essential that the measurement of such problem is improved. These improvements also give the incentive to carry out motivating actions, design good policies, gauging progress, and enable holding political leaders accountable for meeting targets. To help make this possible, we provide an examination of how poverty is currently measured, bringing together evidence on the nature and extent of poverty in 91 countries around the world. This article presents research using the Rasch model, an inductive method which uses a synthetic-analytical process. This method enables us to provide a comparison of poverty among countries and identifies the main factors that contribute to it.

La decisión del Reino Unido de abandonar la Unión Europea ha sido uno de los hechos más delicados en la historia del proyecto de integración europea. Dadas las dificultades para hacer otro tipo de evaluaciones en estos momentos, el interés de este trabajo es analizar las causas y el proceso seguido, ya que es la primera vez que un país miembro —uno de los de mayor relieve— emprende este camino. Durante las conversaciones llevadas a cabo para este fin, se han ido abriendo incógnitas de carácter económico, político y social sobre cómo llevar a buen puerto este mandato y, en consecuencia, se han generado serias dudas sobre las ventajas que se argumentaron a la hora de votar la salida. La solución todavía está por llegar, lo que ha creado un clima de desconfianza entre los ciudadanos europeos y británicos con respecto a sus políticos, pues no queda muy claro si realmente estos últimos están defendiendo los intereses del país u otros. ; Abstract: The decision made by the United Kingdom to leave the European Union has been one of the most delicate moments in the history of the European integration project. Given the difficulties of doing other types of evaluations at the moment, this work aims to analyze the causes and the process followed, since it is the first time that a member country—one of the most prominent ones—takes this path. The conversations carried out for this purpose have posed unanswered questions of economic, political, and social nature about how to carry out this order successfully; this has raised serious doubts aboutits advantages, which were discussed at the time of voting for the exit from the European Union. This situation has created a climate of distrust between European and British citizens regarding their politicians, as it is not very clear if the latter are really defending the interests of the country or others. ; Resumo: A decisão do Reino Unido de abandonar a União Europeia foi um dos acontecimentos mais delicados na história do projeto de integração europeia. Tendo em vista as dificuldades para fazer outro tipo de avaliação nestes momentos, o interesse deste trabalho é analisar as causas e o processo que se seguiu, já que é a primeira vez que um país-membro —um dos de maior relevância— empreende esse caminho. Durante os diálogos sobre o tema, vêm sendo abertas incógnitas de caráter econômico, político e social acerca de como se chegar a um bom final e, por consequência, sérias dúvidas vêm sendo geradas quanto às vantagens expostas no momento de votar a saída. Ainda não se chegou a nenhuma solução, o que tem criado um clima de desconfiança entre os cidadãos europeus e britânicos a respeito de seus políticos, pois não fica claro se realmente estes últimos estão defendendo os interesses do país ou outros.

The decision made by the United Kingdom to leave the European Union has been one of the most delicate moments in the history of the European integration project. Given the difficulties of doing other types of evaluations at the moment, this work aims to analyze the causes and the process followed, since it is the first time that a member country—one of the most prominent ones—takes this path. The conversations carried out for this purpose have posed unanswered questions of economic, political, and social nature about how to carry out this order successfully; this has raised serious doubts about its advantages, which were discussed at the time of voting for the exit from the European Union. This situation has created a climate of distrust between European and British citizens regarding their politicians, as it is not very clear if the latter are really defending the interests of the country or others. ; La decisión del Reino Unido de abandonar la Unión Europea ha sido uno de los hechos más delicados en la historia del proyecto de integración europea. Dadas las dificultades para hacer otro tipo de evaluaciones en estos momentos, el interés de este trabajo es analizar las causas y el proceso seguido, ya que es la primera vez que un país miembro —uno de los de mayor relieve— emprende este camino. Durante las conversaciones llevadas a cabo para este fin, se han ido abriendo incógnitas de carácter económico, político y social sobre cómo llevar a buen puerto este mandato y, en consecuencia, se han generado serias dudas sobre las ventajas que se argumentaron a la hora de votar la salida. La solución todavía está por llegar, lo que ha creado un clima de desconfianza entre los ciudadanos europeos y británicos con respecto a sus políticos, pues no queda muy claro si realmente estos últimos están defendiendo los intereses del país u otros. ; A decisão do Reino Unido de abandonar a União Europeia foi um dos acontecimentos mais delicados na história do projeto de integração europeia. Tendo em vista as dificuldades para fazer outro tipo de avaliação nestes momentos, o interesse deste trabalho é analisar as causas e o processo que se seguiu, já que é a primeira vez que um país-membro —um dos de maior relevância— empreende esse caminho. Durante os diálogos sobre o tema, vêm sendo abertas incógnitas de caráter econômico, político e social acerca de como se chegar a um bom final e, por consequência, sérias dúvidas vêm sendo geradas quanto às vantagens expostas no momento de votar a saída. Ainda não se chegou a nenhuma solução, o que tem criado um clima de desconfiança entre os cidadãos europeus e britânicos a respeito de seus políticos, pois não fica claro se realmente estes últimos estão defendendo os interesses do país ou outros.

The decision made by the United Kingdom to leave the European Union has been one of the most delicate moments in the history of the European integration project. Given the difficulties of doing other types of evaluations at the moment, this work aims to analyze the causes and the process followed, since it is the first time that a member country—one of the most prominent ones—takes this path. The conversations carried out for this purpose have posed unanswered questions of economic, political, and social nature about how to carry out this order successfully; this has raised serious doubts about its advantages, which were discussed at the time of voting for the exit from the European Union. This situation has created a climate of distrust between European and British citizens regarding their politicians, as it is not very clear if the latter are really defending the interests of the country or others. ; La decisión del Reino Unido de abandonar la Unión Europea ha sido uno de los hechos más delicados en la historia del proyecto de integración europea. Dadas las dificultades para hacer otro tipo de evaluaciones en estos momentos, el interés de este trabajo es analizar las causas y el proceso seguido, ya que es la primera vez que un país miembro —uno de los de mayor relieve— emprende este camino. Durante las conversaciones llevadas a cabo para este fin, se han ido abriendo incógnitas de carácter económico, político y social sobre cómo llevar a buen puerto este mandato y, en consecuencia, se han generado serias dudas sobre las ventajas que se argumentaron a la hora de votar la salida. La solución todavía está por llegar, lo que ha creado un clima de desconfianza entre los ciudadanos europeos y británicos con respecto a sus políticos, pues no queda muy claro si realmente estos últimos están defendiendo los intereses del país u otros. ; A decisão do Reino Unido de abandonar a União Europeia foi um dos acontecimentos mais delicados na história do projeto de integração europeia. Tendo em vista as dificuldades para fazer ...

The persistency of poverty around the world is one of the most serious problems that humanity has to face, so in order to arise awareness, it is essential that the measurement of such problem is improved. These improvements also give the incentive to carry out motivating actions, design good policies, gauging progress, and enable holding political leaders accountable for meeting targets. To help make this possible, we provide an examination of how poverty is currently measured, bringing together evidence on the nature and extent of poverty in 91 countries around the world. This article presents research using the Rasch model, an inductive method which uses a synthetic-analytical process. This method enables us to provide a comparison of poverty among countries and identifies the main factors that contribute to it.

In recent decades, a number of initiatives have been undertaken to reduce poverty and improve the economic situation of Least Developed Countries (LCDs), but there are still problems that prevent them from progressing toward their goals. This article studies the scientific contributions related to the issue of the LCDs to detect how these countries can achieve sustained economic growth with full use of their capacities, allowing access to new forms of production that could generate products and activities with greater added value. The research has been carried out using bibliometric tools (Vosviewer and Biblioshiny) and the data have been extracted from Web of Science and Scopus. This method includes the topics that have been dealt with the most, the trend followed by these publications, the concentration of authors and the responses that scientific journals offer on LDCs. In conclusion, there has been increased concern about these issues, especially around the topic of trade, sustainability, and the African continent, albeit with gaps in aspects such as the importance of raw materials, official development aid, transportation, and the distribution of its products, as well as other key variables to achieve its future development. As a recommendation, we suggest that the group of researchers on the subject must be stimulated so that the message provokes a reaction regarding the importance of the issues affecting these countries, their painful consequences, and the need to find adequate solutions considering their social and humanitarian significance. It is about raising awareness among the scientific community on topics that have been largely overshadowed by more media-driven current issues.

The persistency of poverty around the world is one of the most serious problems that humanity has to face, so in order to arise awareness, it is essential that the measurement of such problem is improved. These improvements also give the incentive to carry out motivating actions, design good policies, gauging progress, and enable holding political leaders accountable for meeting targets. To help make this possible, we provide an examination of how poverty is currently measured, bringing together evidence on the nature and extent of poverty in 91 countries around the world. This article presents research using the Rasch model, an inductive method which uses a synthetic-analytical process. This method enables us to provide a comparison of poverty among countries and identifies the main factors that contribute to it.

Since the foundation of the European Economic Community there is an incessant debate about the necessity of an overall tax and fiscal cooperation and harmonization in Europe, which recently has been intensified mainly because of EMU. By reviewing the literature, this article argues that closer cooperation in tax issues, for both indirect and direct taxation, needs to accompany the current state of integration in the EU. Advances have taken place in indirect taxes, value added tax (VAT) and excises. With respect to VAT, the major agreements were achieved with the Sixth VAT Directive (1977) and the agreements on rates after the elimination of the frontier controls (1992). In the case of excise duties, the progress have been less significant and there can be noted only the agreements of minimum rates for alcohol, tobacco and energy (fuels). In direct taxation, it is necessary to point out that the powers are national and the EU is limited to guaranteeing the performance of the single market. Community legislation is centered on company taxation and the taxation of savings income. Taxes and social security contributions strongly influence patterns of saving, consumption, investment and employment, and thus shape the operation of markets for goods, services, capital and labor. The reforms launched by the Cardiff European Council of June 1998 are designed to ensure that the differences between systems that have become even more apparent since the introduction of the euro do not hamper trade, result in fragmentation of the single market or prevent the efficient allocation of resources. Tax fraud is another problem of increasing concern in the Community. European Parliament and Council Decision 888/98/EC instituted a program (Fiscalis) to improve the operation of indirect taxation systems in the single market and to secure wide-ranging and effective cooperation between Member States and with the Commission, and to improve administrative practice. International VAT fraud, particularly on sales and deliveries within the ...