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Physical activity and ventilation rates have an effect on an individual's dose and may be important to consider in exposure−response relationships; however, these factors are often ignored in environmental epidemiology studies. The aim of this study was to evaluate methods of estimating the inhaled dose of air pollution and understand variability in the absence of a true gold standard metric. Five types of methods were identified: (1) methods using (physical) activity types, (2) methods based on energy expenditure, METs (metabolic equivalents of task), and oxygen consumption, (3) methods based on heart rate or (4) breathing rate, and (5) methods that combine heart and breathing rate. Methods were compared using a real-life data set of 122 adults who wore devices to track movement, black carbon air pollution, and physiological health markers for 3 weeks in three European cities. Different methods for estimating minute ventilation performed well in relative terms with high correlations among different methods, but in absolute terms, ignoring increased ventilation during day-to-day activities could lead to an underestimation of the daily dose by a factor of 0.08−1.78. There is no single best method, and a multitude of methods are currently being used to approximate the dose. The choice of a suitable method for determining the dose in future studies will depend on both the size and the objectives of the study. ; This work was supported by the European project Physical Activity through Sustainable Transportation Approaches (PASTA). PASTA (http://www.pastaproject.eu/) is a four-year project funded by the European Union's Seventh Framework Program (EU FP7) under European Commission Grant Agreement 602624. E.D. is supported by a postdoctoral scholarship from FWO-Research Foundation Flanders. M.L. holds a joint PASTA/VITO Ph.D. scholarship.

BACKGROUND: Although walking for travel can help in reaching the daily recommended levels of physical activity, we know relatively little about the correlates of walking for travel in the European context. OBJECTIVE: Within the framework of the European Physical Activity through Sustainable Transport Approaches (PASTA) project, we aimed to explore the correlates of walking for travel in European cities. METHODS: The same protocol was applied in seven European cities. Using a web-based questionnaire, we collected information on total minutes of walking per week, individual characteristics, mobility behavior, and attitude (N=7,875). Characteristics of the built environment (the home and the work/study addresses) were determined with geographic information system (GIS)-based techniques. We conducted negative binomial regression analyses, including city as a random effect. Factor and principal component analyses were also conducted to define profiles of the different variables of interest. RESULTS: Living in high-density residential areas with richness of facilities and density of public transport stations was associated with increased walking for travel, whereas the same characteristics at the work/study area were less strongly associated with the outcome when the residential and work/study environments were entered in the model jointly. A walk-friendly social environment was associated with walking for travel. All three factors describing different opinions about walking (ranging from good to bad) were associated with increased minutes of walking per week, although the importance given to certain criteria to choose a mode of transport provided different results according to the criteria. DISCUSSION: The present study supports findings from previous research regarding the role of the built environment in the promotion of walking for travel and provides new findings to help in achieving sustainable, healthy, livable, and walkable cities. ; PASTA (Physical Activity through Sustainable Transport Approaches; http://www.pastaproject.eu/) is a 4-y project funded by the European Union's Seventh Framework Program under EC-GA No. 602624-2 (FP7-HEALTH-2013-INNOVATION-1).

While the annual number of trips of the average urban inhabitant has grown steadily in recent years, people are becoming less active while doing so. This lack of physical activity causes major health problems for individuals and great economic costs for society as a whole. Replacing short motorized trips by walking and cycling has been shown to increase physical activity in everyday life. The PASTA "Physical Activity through Sustainable Transport Approaches" project collected data in a longitudinal web-based survey with a cohort design to study the effects of active mobility on overall physical activity and health. An opportunistic sampling approach focusing on cyclists was applied to recruit more than 10000 participants in seven European cities, with half of them completing valid 1-day travel diaries at various time points. For this study, we compared 'cyclists' and 'non-cyclists' in terms of their overall travel behavior, physical activity and health. More than 2400 participants were identified as regular cyclists, 90% of which reached at least 30 min of active travel per day (the WHO´s recommended level) only by routine trips. When compared to non-cyclists, the share of women cycling regularly was lower; however, the share of people who had a driver's license and had at least sometimes access to a car was higher for regular cyclists. There were significant differences between cities in terms of cycling mode share, trip rates, trip duration and length, trip purpose and total physical activity, reflecting different geographical, economic, climatic and socio-cultural contexts. Our results indicate that cycling as a means of transport can help reach the WHO's physical activity recommendations. ; This work was supported by the European project Physical Activity through Sustainable Transportation Approaches (PASTA). PASTA (http://www.pastaproject.eu/) is a four-year project funded by the European Union's Seventh Framework Program (EU FP7) under European Commission - Grant Agreement No. 602624. Evi Dons is supported by a postdoctoral scholarship from FWO - Research Foundation Flanders.

While the annual number of trips of the average urban inhabitant has grown steadily in recent years, people are becoming less active while doing so. This lack of physical activity causes major health problems for individuals and great economic costs for society as a whole. Replacing short motorized trips by walking and cycling has been shown to increase physical activity in everyday life. The PASTA "Physical Activity through Sustainable Transport Approaches" project collected data in a longitudinal web-based survey with a cohort design to study the effects of active mobility on overall physical activity and health. An opportunistic sampling approach focusing on cyclists was applied to recruit more than 10000 participants in seven European cities, with half of them completing valid 1-day travel diaries at various time points. For this study, we compared 'cyclists' and 'non-cyclists' in terms of their overall travel behavior, physical activity and health. More than 2400 participants were identified as regular cyclists, 90% of which reached at least 30 min of active travel per day (the WHO´s recommended level) only by routine trips. When compared to non-cyclists, the share of women cycling regularly was lower; however, the share of people who had a driver's license and had at least sometimes access to a car was higher for regular cyclists. There were significant differences between cities in terms of cycling mode share, trip rates, trip duration and length, trip purpose and total physical activity, reflecting different geographical, economic, climatic and socio-cultural contexts. Our results indicate that cycling as a means of transport can help reach the WHO's physical activity recommendations. ; This work was supported by the European project Physical Activity through Sustainable Transportation Approaches (PASTA). PASTA (http://www.pastaproject.eu/) is a four-year project funded by the European Union's Seventh Framework Program (EU FP7) under European Commission ‐ Grant Agreement No. 602624. Evi Dons is supported by a postdoctoral scholarship from FWO – Research Foundation Flanders.

Background: Although walking for travel can help in reaching the daily recommended levels of physical activity, we know relatively little about the correlates of walking for travel in the European context. Objective: Within the framework of the European Physical Activity through Sustainable Transport Approaches (PASTA) project, we aimed to explore the correlates of walking for travel in European cities. Methods: The same protocol was applied in seven European cities. Using a web-based questionnaire, we collected information on total minutes of walking per week, individual characteristics, mobility behavior, and attitude (N = 7,875). Characteristics of the built environment (the home and the work/study addresses) were determined with geographic information system (GIS)-based techniques. We conducted negative binomial regression analyses, including city as a random effect. Factor and principal component analyses were also conducted to define profiles of the different variables of interest. Results: Living in high-density residential areas with richness of facilities and density of public transport stations was associated with increased walking for travel, whereas the same characteristics at the work/study area were less strongly associated with the outcome when the residential and work/study environments were entered in the model jointly. A walk-friendly social environment was associated with walking for travel. All three factors describing different opinions about walking (ranging from good to bad) were associated with increased minutes of walking per week, although the importance given to certain criteria to choose a mode of transport provided different results according to the criteria. Discussion: The present study supports findings from previous research regarding the role of the built environment in the promotion of walking for travel and provides new findings to help in achieving sustainable, healthy, livable, and walkable cities. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP4603. ; PASTA (Physical Activity through Sustainable Transport Approaches; http://www.pastaproject.eu/) is a 4-y project funded by the European Union's Seventh Framework Program under EC-GA No. 602624-2 (FP7-HEALTH-2013-INNOVATION-1).

Active travel (walking or cycling for transport) is considered the most sustainable form of personal transport. Yet its net effects on mobility-related CO2 emissions are complex and underresearched. Here we collected travel activity data in seven European cities and derived life cycle CO2 emissions across modes and purposes. Daily mobility-related life cycle CO2 emissions were 3.2 kgCO(2) per person, with car travel contributing 70% and cycling 1%. Cyclists had 84% lower life cycle CO2 emissions than non-cyclists. Life cycle CO2 emissions decreased by 14% per additional cycling trip and decreased by 62% for each avoided car trip. An average person who `shifted travel modes' from car to bike decreased life cycle CO2 emissions by 3.2 kgCO(2)/day. Promoting active travel should be a cornerstone of strategies to meet net zero carbon targets, particularly in urban areas, while also improving public health and quality of urban life. ; This work was supported by the European project Physical Activity through Sustainable Transportation Approaches (PASTA). PASTA (http://www.pastaproject.eu/) was a four-year project funded by the European Union's Seventh Framework Program (EU FP7) under European Commission - Grant Agreement No. 602624. CB is also supported by UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) under the Centre for Research on Energy Demand Solutions (CREDS, Grant agreement number EP/R035288/1). ED is also supported by a postdoctoral scholarship from FWO - Research Foundation Flanders. ML held a joint PASTA/VITO PhD scholarship. SS is supported by the Martin Filko Scholarship from the Ministry of Education in Slovakia. ; Brand, C (corresponding author), Univ Oxford, Transport Studies Unit, South Parks Rd, Oxford OX, christian.brand@ouce.ox.ac.uk

Introduction: Only one-third of the European population meets the minimum recommended levels of physical activity (PA). Physical inactivity is a major risk factor for non-communicable diseases. Walking and cycling for transport (active mobility, AM) are well suited to provide regular PA. The European research project Physical Activity through Sustainable Transport Approaches (PASTA) pursues the following aims: (1) to investigate correlates and interrelations of AM, PA, air pollution and crash risk; (2) to evaluate the effectiveness of selected interventions to promote AM; (3) to improve health impact assessment (HIA) of AM; (4) to foster the exchange between the disciplines of public health and transport planning, and between research and practice. Methods and analysis: PASTA pursues a mixedmethod and multilevel approach that is consistently applied in seven case study cities. Determinants of AM and the evaluation of measures to increase AM are investigated through a large scale longitudinal survey, with overall 14 000 respondents participating in Antwerp, Barcelona, London, Örebro, Rome, Vienna and Zurich. Contextual factors are systematically gathered in each city. PASTA generates empirical findings to improve HIA for AM, for example, with estimates of crash risks, factors on AM-PA substitution and carbon emissions savings from mode shifts. Findings from PASTA will inform WHO's online Health Economic Assessment Tool on the health benefits from cycling and/or walking. The study's wide scope, the combination of qualitative and quantitative methods and health and transport methods, the innovative survey design, the general and city-specific analyses, and the transdisciplinary composition of the consortium and the wider network of partners promise highly relevant insights for research and practice. Ethics and dissemination: Ethics approval has been obtained by the local ethics committees in the countries where the work is being conducted, and sent to the European Commission before the start of the survey. The PASTA website (http://www.pastaproject.eu) is at the core of all communication and dissemination activities. ; This work is supported by the European project Physical Activity through Sustainable Transportation Approaches (PASTA), which has partners in London, Rome, Antwerp, Örebro, Vienna, Zurich, and Barcelona. PASTA (http://www.pastaproject.eu/) is a 4-year project funded by the European Union's Seventh Framework Program under EC-GA No. 602624-2 (FP7-HEALTH-2013-INNOVATION-1).