Suchergebnisse

After coming to power in Russia, the Bolsheviks created radically new housing policies. Although Soviet authorities enforced the scope of numerous new housing statutes, the provisions of these laws were often contradictory, and there was not a well-conceived program of housing. With the elimination of private real property in Soviet cities, the sale of land in urban areas was technically eliminated. However, disguised (and illegal) sales of municipal housing continued to occur during the era of the New Economic Policy (nep). During this period, a large part of the nation's living space was managed by housing cooperatives, which were created after the Bolshevik assumption of power. However, these housing associations (known in Russian as zhiltovarishchestvо and by the end of 1924 reclassified as Zhakt [rental housing cooperatives]) were trapped by traditional (i.e. non-officially regulated) practices of housing allocation, which dominated the real estate market. As the urban population of Soviet Russia and then (after 1922) the Soviet Union (ussr) grew, a shortage of living space forced Soviet authorities to switch to stricter methods of property control in urban areas. This article describes the housing allocation processes involved in the second-largest city in Soviet Russia/ussr, Petrograd, which from 1924 was known as Leningrad. This article also investigates the functioning of the privately-driven property market mechanisms in the allocation of housing and the Soviet government's efforts to eliminate them.

The study based on the comparative and legal analysis illustrated by the European Union countries and Russia is performed in this article for the first time, Russia has experienced a migration crisis at the close of the 20th century with the collapse of the Soviet Union and has the experience on the settlement of the uncontrolled flow of the refugees, that can be used by the European countries. The purpose of this study is to consider the legal problems of the forced migrants and to propose the possible technologies to regulate the migration processes and to reform the legal framework in the field of migration policy of the countries, experiencing currently the uncontrolled inflow of the refugees. The case-study method was used in this study to develop the models of the different situations, allowing to analyze the legal implications of the forced migration in Europe and to develop the best practical solution in the context of the problem. The comparative analysis method was used to review the practice of the legal regulation of the forced migration in Europe, in the US and in Russia. The study highlights the negative effects of the migration crisis in Europe, including the risk of secession of Europe; the growth of the terrorist threat; the public safety destabilization; the strengthening of the public opposition forces, advocating for the interests of the Europeans, the European identity change. The author's classification of the refugees, which has the theoretical and practical significance, able to assist the application of the basic legal actions, depending on the category of the forced migrants, is proposed. The Russian migration policy experience allows to determine the main trends in the activities of the EU countries to prevent the negative consequences of the uncontrolled migration from the countries of the Middle East: a partnership based on the principle of "positive conditionality" is required, the priority of the national interests, the legislative enshrinement of the minimum compensation payable ...

Digital assets are increasingly used in civil invoicing, which requires the development and unification of legal standards in the field of the creation and use of digital assets. The main objective of this study is to define digital assets as a legal category and precisely characteristics for the digital objects of other civil objects according to identifications. Methods of analysis of legal standards, collection and study of individual facts, statistical methods, scientific abstraction methods and methods of representation of the archives were used. The study that digital objects are an independent legal category, which is an intangible digital asset that can only be created with the help of modern technologies, my that ownership of digital objects arises from the moment of verification with a verification with a code and the realization of a digital input. in a special transaction log. For the right of inheritance of digital objects, it is necessary to implement a verification of holder verification and identification of digital objects during their creation and disposal.

This article is concerned with the features and role of legally significant messages on the Internet within the functioning of e-government. A special role in creating e-government is played by legal documents and legally relevant information available online. Only legally significant information leads to the emergence and development of legal relations governed by rules of law. However, it is difficult to determine legally relevant data in a large information flow. The main objective of this article is to examine the role of electronic communication in operating e-government. While writing this article, the authors used methods of collecting and studying certain facts; generalization methods; methods of scientific abstraction; methods of cognizing regularities. The authors of the article have concluded that legally relevant information available on the Internet is information that has certain forms of external manifestation, entails legal consequences and somehow contributes to governing citizens' legal relations. The authors have suggested their definition of e-government, which is the concept of public administration inherent in the information society. This concept is based on the capabilities of information and telecommunication technologies and the values of an open civil society. E-government consists ofthree main modules: services for citizens; services for institutions and organizations; services for state bodies. When rendering services, the authorities exchange legally relevant e-information with citizens. The use of new Internet technologies by government bodies can decrease costs for maintaining and financing activities of the state apparatus, increase savings of taxpayers and improve the openness and transparency of government bodies. ; Este artículo trata sobre las características y el papel de los mensajes legalmente significativos en Internet dentro del funcionamiento del gobierno electrónico. Los documentos legales y la información legalmente relevante disponible en línea desempeñan un papel especial en la creación del gobierno electrónico. Solo la información legalmente significativa conduce al surgimiento y desarrollo de relaciones legales regidas por las reglas de la ley. Sin embargo, es difícil determinar datos legalmente relevantes en un gran flujo de información. El principal objetivo de este artículo es examinar el papel de la comunicación electrónica en el gobierno electrónico en funcionamiento. Mientras escribían este artículo, los autores usaron métodos para recopilar y estudiar ciertos hechos; métodos de generalización; métodos de abstracción científica; Métodos de conocimiento de las regularidades. Los autores del artículo han llegado a la conclusión de que la información legalmente relevante disponible en Internet es información que tiene ciertas formas de manifestación externa, conlleva consecuencias legales y de alguna manera contribuye a regir las relaciones legales de los ciudadanos. Los autores han sugerido su definición de gobierno electrónico, que es el concepto de administración pública inherente a la sociedad de la información. Este concepto se basa en las capacidades de las tecnologías de la información y las telecomunicaciones y en los valores de una sociedad civil abierta. El gobierno electrónico consta de tres módulos principales: servicios para los ciudadanos; servicios para instituciones y organizaciones; Servicios para organismos estatales. Al prestar servicios, las autoridades intercambian información electrónica legalmente relevante con los ciudadanos. El uso de nuevas tecnologías de Internet por parte de organismos gubernamentales puede reducir los costos de mantenimiento y financiamiento de las actividades del aparato estatal, aumentar el ahorro de los contribuyentes y mejorar la apertura y la transparencia de los organismos gubernamentales. ; В данной статье рассмотрены особенности и роль юридически значимых сообщений в сети Интернет при работе электронного правительства.Особую роль при создании электронного правительства играют правовые документы и интернет-информация, которая является юридически значимой. Только юридически значимая информация приводит к возникновению и развитию правоотношений, которые регулируются нормами права. Выделить в огромной информационном потоке, юридически значимую информацию сложно. Основная цель исследования – это рассмотрение значения электронных сообщений при функционировании электронного правительства. При написании статьи использовались методы сбора и изучения единичных фактов; методы обобщения; методы научной абстракции; методы познания закономерностей. В исследовании сделан вывод, что юридически значимая информация в сети Интернет - это сведения, имеющие фиксированные формы своего внешнего проявления, влекущие юридические последствия и способствующие тем или иным способом урегулированию правоотношений граждан. Дано авторскоеопределение электронного правительства – это концепция осуществления государственного управления, присущая информационному обществу. Данная концепция основывается на возможностях информационно-телекоммуникационных технологий и ценностях открытого гражданского общества. Электронное правительство состоит из трех основных модулей: услуги (сервисы) для граждан; услуги для учреждений и организаций; услуги для государственных органов, при оказании услуг органы власти обмениваются с гражданами юридически значимой информацией в электронном формате. Использование в органах государственного управления новых интернет-технологий может привести к снижению затрат и экономии средств налогоплательщиков на содержание и финансирование деятельности государственного аппарата, увеличению открытости и прозрачности деятельности органов управления.

Este artículo mediante el criterio metodológico del análisis crítico examina el estado legal de los contratos inteligentes, sus particularidades, características y la posibilidad de introducir esta categoría en el campo legal. El objetivo principal del estudio es determinar el estado legal de los contratos inteligentes, y la posibilidad de aplicación en el derecho civil. Durante el estudio se llegó a la conclusión de que el contrato inteligente es un código de programa, basado en la tecnología blockchain, la cual por sus características legales es un mensaje legalmente significativo escrito en un idioma (lenguaje artificial) y respaldado por la firma digital electrónica de cada una de las partes. Se ha demostrado como las interacciones multilaterales realizadas a través de contratos inteligentes permiten reducir los costos de la realización y control de las operaciones, aumentar la velocidad de las operaciones y reducir los riesgos asociados con las acciones desleales de las partes. ; This article using critical analysis discusses the legal status of smart contracts, their features and characteristics, and the possibility of introducing this category into the legal field. The main goal of the study is to determine the legal status of smart contracts. The study concludes that a smart contract is a program code based on blockchain technology, which, by legal characteristics, is a le-gally significant message recorded in a language (artificial language) and sealed with an electronic digital signature of each of the parties (or certified with a special key). It is proved that the multi-lateral interactions implemented through smart contracts can reduce the costs of operations and control them, increase the speed of operations and reduce the risks associated with dishonest actions of the parties, minimize or completely exclude intermediaries from the transaction; therefore, legislation should provide for the possibility of us-ing smart contracts along with existing contracts.

This article using critical analysis discusses the legal status of smart contracts, their features and characteristics, and the possibility of introducing this category into the legal field. The main goal of the study is to determine the legal status of smart contracts. The study concludes that a smart contract is a program code based on blockchain technology, which, by legal characteristics, is a legally significant message recorded in a language (artificial language) and sealed with an electronic digital signature of each of the parties (or certified with a special key). It is proved that the multilateral interactions implemented through smart contracts can reduce the costs of operations and control them, increase the speed of operations and reduce the risks associated with dishonest actions of the parties, minimize or completely exclude intermediaries from the transaction; therefore, legislation should provide for the possibility of using smart contracts along with existing contracts. ; Este artículo mediante el criterio metodológico del análisis crítico examina el estado legal de los contratos inteligentes, sus particularidades, características y la posibilidad de introducir esta categoría en el campo legal. El objetivo principal del estudio es determinar el estado legal de los contratos inteligentes, y la posibilidad de aplicación en el derecho civil. Durante el estudio se llegó a la conclusión de que el contrato inteligente es un código de programa, basado en la tecnología blockchain, la cual por sus características legales es un mensaje legalmente significativo escrito en un idioma (lenguaje artificial) y respaldado por la firma digital electrónica de cada una de las partes. Se ha demostrado como las interacciones multilaterales realizadas a través de contratos inteligentes permiten reducir los costos de la realización y control de las operaciones, aumentar la velocidad de las operaciones y reducir los riesgos asociados con las acciones desleales de las partes.

This article is concerned with the features and role of legally significant messages on the Internet within the functioning of e-government. A special role in creating e-government is played by legal documents and legally relevant information available online. Only legally significant information leads to the emergence and development of legal relations governed by rules of law. However, it is difficult to determine legally relevant data in a large information flow. The main objective of this article is to examine the role of electronic communication in operating e-government. While writing this article, the authors used methods of collecting and studying certain facts; generalization methods; methods of scientific abstraction; methods of cognizing regularities. The authors of the article have concluded that legally relevant information available on the Internet is information that has certain forms of external manifestation, entails legal consequences and somehow contributes to governing citizens' legal relations. The authors have suggested their definition of e-government, which is the concept of public administration inherent in the information society. This concept is based on the capabilities of information and telecommunication technologies and the values of an open civil society. E-government consists of three main modules: services for citizens; services for institutions and organizations; services for state bodies. When rendering services, the authorities exchange legally relevant e-information with citizens. The use of new Internet technologies by government bodies can decrease costs for maintaining and financing activities of the state apparatus, increase savings of taxpayers and improve the openness and transparency of government bodies.

The objective of the article was to develop theoretical provisions for structuring comprehensive methods of crime investigation and to form, on their basis, effective recommendations for the dissemination and investigation of crimes committed in the field of trafficking in precious metals and stones. The authors present comprehensive methods for investigating crimes in the field of illegal circulation of precious metals and stones. An archival 300 criminal cases were examined, the preliminary investigation of which occurred between 2015 and 2019, and in addition, an online interview was conducted with 220 law enforcement officers fighting such crimes. As a result, comprehensive methods have been developed to investigate these crimes, as well as a system of provisions and scientific recommendations for the dissemination and investigation of thefts, trafficking, violations of the rules for the delivery of precious objects. He was interested in designing a method for declaring, illegal enterprise combined into a single subject of investigation with due attention to criminal and forensic prerequisites, including the following structural elements: a) comprehensive forensic characteristics of such crimes, and b) activities of dissemination and investigation of such crimes using the situational approach in its various stages.

This paper investigates the speci嘜cs of electronic trade and the issues of protecting the rights of online-consumers, considers their rights and obligations, since we all face a radically new phenomenon in the sphere of trade – An unprecedented boom of electronic trade (e-commerce), based on the use of the Internet for concluding transactions and operations in the systems of wholesale and retail trade. The means of electronic communication provide broad opportunities for direct contacts between individuals from different countries. The development of electronic communications poses new tasks before the system of international private law, and one of them is the protection of the consumer rights, when conducting electronic trade. The main goal of this research is to explore the contemporary state of electronic trade worldwide and to outline the principles of the online consumer protection. Writing this paper, the following scienti嘜c methods were employed: The method of collecting and examining individual facts, of generalizing, of abstract scienti嘜c conceptualization, the methods of discovering the general rule. As a result of the analysis conducted, we can present a list of the basic principles of protecting the rights of the online consumers – the principle of the right to return the goods bought via the internet; the right to address complaints, when buying goods via the Internet; the principle of recognition of online contracts; the principle of providing effective protection; the principle of protecting the personal data of the online consumers. The paper suggests a de嘜nition of electronic trade by the authors. We conclude that it is necessary to devise an ef嘜cient structure for the judicial system, as well as the legislation that would be really applicable, in the implementation of the consumer right protection in electronic trade.