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This work combines research and empirical evidence on the economic costs of disasters with theoretical approaches. It provides new insights on how to assess and manage the costs and impacts of disaster prevention, mitigation, recovery and adaption, and much more.

This summary aims to provide a brief overview and background to the current humanitarian crisis in Zimbabwe. The overall humanitarian situation is complex, including economic and food crisis, and can be attributed, in varying degrees, to droughts, the HIV/AIDS epidemic and to inappropriate economic and political policies. The former breadbasket of the southern Africa has become a food aid recipient. The collapse of Zimbabwe's health system has contributed to the severity of the recent cholera outbreak. The harsh political climate has hampered the work of NGOs and limited the availability of health data.

This summary aims to provide a brief overview and background to the current humanitarian crisis in Zimbabwe. The overall humanitarian situation is complex, including economic and food crisis, and can be attributed, in varying degrees, to droughts, the HIV/AIDS epidemic and to inappropriate economic and political policies. The former breadbasket of the southern Africa has become a food aid recipient. The collapse of Zimbabwe's health system has contributed to the severity of the recent cholera outbreak. The harsh political climate has hampered the work of NGOs and limited the availability of health data.

ß LRRD involves a debate about the very essence of humanitarian aid, its purpose, scope and effectiveness. ß LRRD encompasses the way the EU conceives of development in terms of conditionality, local participation, and long-term strategies. It is a crucial tool for reducing poverty and improving coherence between policies and practices. This study identifies aspects of European Union (EU) aid and development policy that provide opportunities to link between relief, rehabilitation and development (LRRD). By examining and analysing LRRD, this study has found that there is a great deal of opportunity for further change and improvement. Focused around ten main recommendations, we conclude that such change is essential to improve the effectiveness of European aid delivery. By refocusing LRRD debates in the EU on poor and marginalised people around the issue of poverty reduction, the study argues that there is more to be gained than merely another discussion about the management of aid. LRRD is often depicted as characterised by problems of financial resources, but this study suggests that it is not simply an issue of management, but rather one of strategies and implementation. Because it is human-centred, LRRD frames interventions within a long-term perspective, highlighting both the linkages between relief and development and their failures. Although there have been a number of improvements in EU policy and awareness of LRRD since the original 1996 policy document, the 2001 Communication on LRRD failed to focus on effective solutions, and the recommendations proposed have yet to be fully implemented. In this context, the study points to the importance of broadening the debate about LRRD by examining its components at a conceptual level, and by considering it in practical policy terms at European level. ß There is broad consensus that EU relief efforts should reinforce development and that development efforts should prepare states and poor people to better withstand disasters and emergencies. ß The European Commission (EC) emphasises flexibility, coherence and deconcentration, but lacks a practical focus on implementation and financial tools. European institutions are pioneering debates about LRRD and could shape its development at state and international levels. In order to do so, this study highlights two main areas of opportunity for change that require urgent attention: ß EU policy and strategic vision on LRRD including: poverty policy, the scope of participation of affected people, strategic features of LRRD, and the conceptual importance of rehabilitation and disaster preparedness. ß EC management of humanitarian and development aid including: coordination, implementation, evaluation, and structures to implement its strategic approach. In sum, the report argues that it is essential for the EU to be both a think-tank and a learning organisation: ß Continued improvement of EU performance in developing the link between relief, rehabilitation and development requires efforts to continually re-think LRRD policy, in terms of both strategy and implementation. ß Continued improvement also requires efforts to expand the learning capacity of the EC via the development of training tools, best practices, comprehensive joint evaluations and by capitalising on existing expertise

ß LRRD involves a debate about the very essence of humanitarian aid, its purpose, scope and effectiveness. ß LRRD encompasses the way the EU conceives of development in terms of conditionality, local participation, and long-term strategies. It is a crucial tool for reducing poverty and improving coherence between policies and practices. This study identifies aspects of European Union (EU) aid and development policy that provide opportunities to link between relief, rehabilitation and development (LRRD). By examining and analysing LRRD, this study has found that there is a great deal of opportunity for further change and improvement. Focused around ten main recommendations, we conclude that such change is essential to improve the effectiveness of European aid delivery. By refocusing LRRD debates in the EU on poor and marginalised people around the issue of poverty reduction, the study argues that there is more to be gained than merely another discussion about the management of aid. LRRD is often depicted as characterised by problems of financial resources, but this study suggests that it is not simply an issue of management, but rather one of strategies and implementation. Because it is human-centred, LRRD frames interventions within a long-term perspective, highlighting both the linkages between relief and development and their failures. Although there have been a number of improvements in EU policy and awareness of LRRD since the original 1996 policy document, the 2001 Communication on LRRD failed to focus on effective solutions, and the recommendations proposed have yet to be fully implemented. In this context, the study points to the importance of broadening the debate about LRRD by examining its components at a conceptual level, and by considering it in practical policy terms at European level. ß There is broad consensus that EU relief efforts should reinforce development and that development efforts should prepare states and poor people to better withstand disasters and emergencies. ß The European Commission (EC) emphasises flexibility, coherence and deconcentration, but lacks a practical focus on implementation and financial tools. European institutions are pioneering debates about LRRD and could shape its development at state and international levels. In order to do so, this study highlights two main areas of opportunity for change that require urgent attention: ß EU policy and strategic vision on LRRD including: poverty policy, the scope of participation of affected people, strategic features of LRRD, and the conceptual importance of rehabilitation and disaster preparedness. ß EC management of humanitarian and development aid including: coordination, implementation, evaluation, and structures to implement its strategic approach. In sum, the report argues that it is essential for the EU to be both a think-tank and a learning organisation: ß Continued improvement of EU performance in developing the link between relief, rehabilitation and development requires efforts to continually re-think LRRD policy, in terms of both strategy and implementation. ß Continued improvement also requires efforts to expand the learning capacity of the EC via the development of training tools, best practices, comprehensive joint evaluations and by capitalising on existing expertise

Abstract
Background
Under-five death rate is one of the major indicators used in assessing the level of needs and severity of humanitarian crisis. Over the years, a number of small-scale surveys based on Standardized Monitoring and Assessment of Relief and Transitions methodology has been conducted in Yemen, these serve as a guide for policy maker and the humanitarian community. The aim of this study is to identify critical methodological and reporting weaknesses that are easy to correct and would improve substantively the quality of the results.

Methods
We obtained seventy-seven surveys conducted across 22 governorates in Yemen between 2011 and 2019 and divided the analysis period into pre-crisis (2011–2014) and crisis period (2015–2019) for comparison. We analysed survey qualities such as sampling methodology, completeness of reporting of Under-five death rate and mortality sample size for children less than five (children < 5) years old.

Results
Seventy-seven (71.9%) out of 107 surveys met the eligibility criteria to be included in the study. The methodological quality and reporting are as varied as the surveys. 23.4% (n = 18) met the criteria for quality of sampling methodology, while 77.9%(n = 60) presented required information for the estimation of required mortality sample size and 40.3%(n = 31) met the quality check for reporting of Under-five death rate.

Conclusions
Our assessment indicated that there is no strict adherence to the sampling methodology set out in Standardized Monitoring and Assessment of Relief and Transitions guidelines, and reporting of mortality and sample size data. Adherence to methodological guidelines and complete reporting of surveys in humanitarian settings will vastly improve both the quality and uptake of key data on health and nutrition of the affected population.

BACKGROUND: Humanitarian settings often present unique scientific challenges and conditions that distinguish them from standard research settings. While a number of these challenges are faced in both standard settings and humanitarian settings, factors unique to humanitarian settings such as inaccessibility and time sensitivities further exacerbate the effects of these challenges. This analysis focuses on experiences in post-disaster contexts such as Indonesia and India following the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, the Philippines following Typhoon Haiyan in 2013, and Nepal following the 2015 earthquake. DISCUSSION: Particular issues that we faced in undertaking research in post-disaster settings include challenges with uncharted ethical and cultural considerations, non-standardised administrative methods for record keeping, data sharing and dissemination. While these issues are not unique to post-disaster humanitarian settings, the time-sensitive nature of our work exacerbated the effects of these concerns. Relying on local partners and making quick decisions to tackle issues is imperative for navigating both foreseen and unforeseen challenges. While pre-emptive action to address these concerns is the most efficient means to expedite research protocols, adaptability and contingency planning are key components of practical research implementation in dynamic situations. CONCLUSIONS: Research is not always a priority in humanitarian settings, so innovative methods are necessary to conduct meaningful and situationally appropriate research in these venues. By understanding available resources, local culture, and political considerations and working efficiently and decisively, we can begin to jump hurdles associated with epidemiologic research in humanitarian settings.

Background: Humanitarian settings often present unique scientific challenges and conditions that distinguish them from standard research settings. While a number of these challenges are faced in both standard settings and humanitarian settings, factors unique to humanitarian settings such as inaccessibility and time sensitivities further exacerbate the effects of these challenges. This analysis focuses on experiences in post-disaster contexts such as Indonesia and India following the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, the Philippines following Typhoon Haiyan in 2013, and Nepal following the 2015 earthquake. Discussion: Particular issues that we faced in undertaking research in post-disaster settings include challenges with uncharted ethical and cultural considerations, non-standardised administrative methods for record keeping, data sharing and dissemination. While these issues are not unique to post-disaster humanitarian settings, the timesensitive nature of our work exacerbated the effects of these concerns. Relying on local partners and making quick decisions to tackle issues is imperative for navigating both foreseen and unforeseen challenges. While pre-emptive action to address these concerns is the most efficient means to expedite research protocols, adaptability and contingency planning are key components of practical research implementation in dynamic situations. Conclusions: Research is not always a priority in humanitarian settings, so innovative methods are necessary to conduct meaningful and situationally appropriate research in these venues. By understanding available resources, local culture, and political considerations and working efficiently and decisively, we can begin to jump hurdles associated with epidemiologic research in humanitarian settings.

Background: Humanitarian settings often present unique scientific challenges and conditions that distinguish them from standard research settings. While a number of these challenges are faced in both standard settings and humanitarian settings, factors unique to humanitarian settings such as inaccessibility and time sensitivities further exacerbate the effects of these challenges. This analysis focuses on experiences in post-disaster contexts such as Indonesia and India following the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, the Philippines following Typhoon Haiyan in 2013, and Nepal following the 2015 earthquake. Discussion: Particular issues that we faced in undertaking research in post-disaster settings include challenges with uncharted ethical and cultural considerations, non-standardised administrative methods for record keeping, data sharing and dissemination. While these issues are not unique to post-disaster humanitarian settings, the timesensitive nature of our work exacerbated the effects of these concerns. Relying on local partners and making quick decisions to tackle issues is imperative for navigating both foreseen and unforeseen challenges. While pre-emptive action to address these concerns is the most efficient means to expedite research protocols, adaptability and contingency planning are key components of practical research implementation in dynamic situations. Conclusions: Research is not always a priority in humanitarian settings, so innovative methods are necessary to conduct meaningful and situationally appropriate research in these venues. By understanding available resources, local culture, and political considerations and working efficiently and decisively, we can begin to jump hurdles associated with epidemiologic research in humanitarian settings.

INTRODUCTION The effects of armed conflicts on mortality fall into one of two categories: direct and indirect. By direct mortality we mean those violent deaths caused by military operations among both soldiers and civilians, often called battle deaths. The loss of life caused by armed conflicts does not stop there. In fact, much more death and misery is inflicted on civil populations by indirect means. Those collateral effects of conflict are commonly known as "indirect" or "excess" mortality. They account for those non-violent deaths among civil populations that would not have occurred without the conflict. Over the last decades, indirect deaths have greatly outnumbered direct battle-deaths in most conflicts. The main causes of those indirect deaths include economic collapse, food shortages and malnutrition, the disruption of health systems, mass population movements to overcrowded settlements, and the stretching of public safety systems due to long conflicts. In this document, we will analyze the human impact that the Angolan conflict has had on the civilian population in terms of mortality and malnutrition. Special attention will be paid to the differences in impact over time and according to the legal status of the population affected; residents, Internal Displaced Persons (IDPs) and refugees. At the same time, we will assess the extent to which the Angolan conflict has caused an excess mortality and look into the main causes of this excess. Reconstruction, recovery and development activities in Angola require an in-depth understanding of past trends and patterns in essential population, health and nutrition indicators. Predictions of disease and mortality patterns, as well as health service needs, can best be projected using past trends and patterns of these indicators among the displaced, returnee and resident populations. We have focused the analysis on the last period of armed conflict between UNITA (National Union for Total Independence of Angola) and the Angolan Government in the years 1999-2002 and the post-conflict situation after the April 2002 ceasefire up to 2005. The last period of war between 1999 and 2002 was the most deadly, due in great part to the "scorched earth" military strategies of both warring sides. This caused a huge influx of IDPs to overcrowded cities, as well as rendering large areas of Angola inaccessible to international relief. With the aim of assessing the burden of conflict, we have used more than 90 quantitative surveys undertaken in Angola by several NGOs since 1999, as well as surveillance mortality data on Angolan refugee camps outside the borders. These surveys have been a reliable source of information on the level of distress caused by the conflict among the civil population

INTRODUCTION The effects of armed conflicts on mortality fall into one of two categories: direct and indirect. By direct mortality we mean those violent deaths caused by military operations among both soldiers and civilians, often called battle deaths. The loss of life caused by armed conflicts does not stop there. In fact, much more death and misery is inflicted on civil populations by indirect means. Those collateral effects of conflict are commonly known as "indirect" or "excess" mortality. They account for those non-violent deaths among civil populations that would not have occurred without the conflict. Over the last decades, indirect deaths have greatly outnumbered direct battle-deaths in most conflicts. The main causes of those indirect deaths include economic collapse, food shortages and malnutrition, the disruption of health systems, mass population movements to overcrowded settlements, and the stretching of public safety systems due to long conflicts. In this document, we will analyze the human impact that the Angolan conflict has had on the civilian population in terms of mortality and malnutrition. Special attention will be paid to the differences in impact over time and according to the legal status of the population affected; residents, Internal Displaced Persons (IDPs) and refugees. At the same time, we will assess the extent to which the Angolan conflict has caused an excess mortality and look into the main causes of this excess. Reconstruction, recovery and development activities in Angola require an in-depth understanding of past trends and patterns in essential population, health and nutrition indicators. Predictions of disease and mortality patterns, as well as health service needs, can best be projected using past trends and patterns of these indicators among the displaced, returnee and resident populations. We have focused the analysis on the last period of armed conflict between UNITA (National Union for Total Independence of Angola) and the Angolan Government in the years 1999-2002 and the post-conflict situation after the April 2002 ceasefire up to 2005. The last period of war between 1999 and 2002 was the most deadly, due in great part to the "scorched earth" military strategies of both warring sides. This caused a huge influx of IDPs to overcrowded cities, as well as rendering large areas of Angola inaccessible to international relief. With the aim of assessing the burden of conflict, we have used more than 90 quantitative surveys undertaken in Angola by several NGOs since 1999, as well as surveillance mortality data on Angolan refugee camps outside the borders. These surveys have been a reliable source of information on the level of distress caused by the conflict among the civil population

The paper explores the degree to which exposure to natural disasters and poor governance (quality of governance) is associated with absolute child poverty in sixty-seven middle- and low-income countries. The data is representative for about 2.8 billion of the world´s population. Institutionalist tend to argue that many of society's ills, including poverty, derive from fragile or inefficient institutions. However, our findings show that although increasing quality of government tends to be associated with less poverty, the negative effects of natural disasters on child poverty are independent of a country´s institutional efficiency. Increasing disaster victims (killed and affected) is associated with higher rates of child poverty. A child´s estimated odds ratio to be in a state of absolute poverty increases by about a factor of 5.7 [95% CI: 1.7 to 18.7] when the average yearly toll of disasters in the child´s country increases by one on a log-10 scale. Better governance correlates with less child poverty, but it does not modify the correlation between child poverty and natural disasters. The results are based on hierarchical regression models that partition the variance into three parts: child, household, and country. The models were cross-sectional and based on observational data from the Demographic Health Survey and the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey, which were collected at the beginning of the twenty-first millennium. The Sustainable Development Goals are a principle declaration to halt climate change, but they lack a clear plan on how the burden of this change should be shared by the global community. Based on our results, we suggest that the development agencies should take this into account and to articulate more equitable global policies to protect the most vulnerable, specifically children.

The paper explores the degree to which exposure to natural disasters and poor governance (quality of governance) is associated with absolute child poverty in sixty-seven middle- and low-income countries. The data is representative for about 2.8 billion of the world´s population. Institutionalist tend to argue that many of society's ills, including poverty, derive from fragile or inefficient institutions. However, our findings show that although increasing quality of government tends to be associated with less poverty, the negative effects of natural disasters on child poverty are independent of a country´s institutional efficiency. Increasing disaster victims (killed and affected) is associated with higher rates of child poverty. A child´s estimated odds ratio to be in a state of absolute poverty increases by about a factor of 5.7 [95% CI: 1.7 to 18.7] when the average yearly toll of disasters in the child´s country increases by one on a log-10 scale. Better governance correlates with less child poverty, but it does not modify the correlation between child poverty and natural disasters. The results are based on hierarchical regression models that partition the variance into three parts: child, household, and country. The models were cross-sectional and based on observational data from the Demographic Health Survey and the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey, which were collected at the beginning of the twenty-first millennium. The Sustainable Development Goals are a principle declaration to halt climate change, but they lack a clear plan on how the burden of this change should be shared by the global community. Based on our results, we suggest that the development agencies should take this into account and to articulate more equitable global policies to protect the most vulnerable, specifically children.

This paper explores the degree to which exposure to reoccurring natural disasters of various kinds explains seven dimensions of severe child poverty in 67 middle- and low-income countries. It also analyzes how certain institutional conditions, namely the quality of government (QoG), have moderating effects on the relationship between disasters and child poverty. Two main hypotheses are tested. The first is that disasters do have an adverse average effect on severe poverty. The second is that disasters reveal a positive coefficient (i.e., more disasters, more deprivation) but that higher levels of QoG negatively moderate this effect, i.e., the adverse effect of disasters is diminished by increasingly high QoG levels. From 70 possible combinations of relationships (7 types of deprivation combined with 10 types of natural disaster measures), 11 have the expected correlation between disasters and child deprivation and only one has the expected interactive correlation between quality of government, disasters, and child poverty. Several unexpected results could also be observed which are discussed in the paper along with recommendations for future research. ; Das Papier untersucht den Zusammenhang zwischen hoher Kinderarmut und Ausmaß und Häufigkeit von Naturkatastrophen. Hierzu werden sieben Dimensionen der Kinderarmut in 67 Ländern mit mittlerem und niedrigem Pro-Kopf-Einkommen analysiert, die wiederholt von Naturkatastrophen betroffen sind. Am Beispiel der Regierungsqualität (Quality of Government, QoG) wird weiterhin untersucht, ob und inwieweit institutionelle Rahmenbedingungen den Zusammenhang zwischen Katastrophen und Kinderarmut beeinflussen. Zwei Haupthypothesen werden getestet: (1) Katastrophen haben generell einen negativen Effekt auf schwere Armut; (2) Katastrophen haben einen positiven Koeffizienten (mehr Katastrophen, mehr Deprivation), aber höhere QoG-Werte mildern diesen Effekt, das heißt, die negativen Auswirkungen von Katastrophen werden von höheren QoG-Werten abgeschwächt. Von siebzig möglichen Beziehungskombinationen (sieben Deprivationstypen kombiniert mit zehn Schweregraden von Naturkatastrophen) weisen elf die erwartete Korrelation zwischen Katastrophen und Deprivation bei Kindern auf, aber nur eine besitzt die erwartete interaktive Korrelation zwischen QoG, Katastrophen und Kinderarmut. In dem Discussion Paper werden darüber hinaus verschiedene unerwartete Ergebnisse sowie Empfehlungen für die weitere Forschung diskutiert.