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Abstract. In two experiments, we investigated the downstream consequences of activating deliberative versus implemental mindsets on risk perception (Experiment 1) and risk-taking behavior (Experiment 2). We hypothesized that participants in an implemental versus deliberative mindset arrive at more optimistic judgments about their own risks of experiencing negative life events, compared to other peoples' risks. The results of Experiment 1 confirm this hypothesis and reveal perceived controllability as an important moderator. Experiment 2 further augments these findings by demonstrating that participants in a deliberative mindset show less risk-taking behavior than participants in an implemental mindset using a behavioral risk task. Implications for research on mindset theory of action phases and mindset-dependent effects on risk perception and risk-taking behavior are discussed.

PurposeThe present experiment aimed to test the impact of a self‐regulatory strategy of goal pursuit – called mental contrasting with implementation intentions (MCII) – on an integrative bargaining task.Design/methodology/approachParticipants were randomly assigned to dyads and negotiated over the sale of a car. Before negotiating, participants were prompted to engage in MCII, or one or the other of its two component strategies: to contrast mentally achieving success in the integrative bargaining task with the reality standing in the way of this success (MC), to form implementation intentions on how to bargain (i.e. if‐then plans) (II), or both to contrast mentally and form implementation intentions (MCII).FindingsThe strategy of mental contrasting with implementation intentions led dyads to reach the largest joint agreements, compared to dyads that only used mental contrasting or if‐then plans. Moreover, participants who mentally contrasted formed more cooperative implementation intentions than participants who did not mentally contrast, mediating the effect of condition on joint gain.Research limitations/implicationsThe findings suggest that the self‐regulatory strategy of mental contrasting with implementation intentions (MCII) leads to higher joint gain, and that this effect is mediated by mental contrasting's promotion of cooperative planning. More research should be done to understand the specific negotiation behaviors engendered by MCII, as well as its applicability to other negotiation scenarios.Originality/valueThese findings have implications for both self‐regulation and negotiation research. The result that MCII fosters integrative solutions reflects its potential to help people form cooperative plans and reach high joint‐value agreements in integrative scenarios. For negotiation research, the paper identifies an effective self‐regulatory strategy for producing high‐quality agreements.

PurposeThis paper aims to test the impact of several self‐regulatory strategies on an integrative bargaining task.Design/methodology/approachParticipants were randomly assigned to dyads and negotiated over the sale of a car. Before negotiating, participants were prompted to engage in one of three self‐regulation strategies, based upon fantasy realization theory (FRT): to mentally contrast a successful future agreement with the reality of bargaining, to exclusively elaborate on successful future agreement, or to exclusively elaborate on the reality of bargaining. Those in the control condition merely began the negotiation.FindingsMentally contrasting a successful future agreement with the reality of bargaining leads dyads to reach the largest and most equitable joint agreements, compared to dyads that elaborate only on successful future agreement, or on the reality of bargaining.Research limitations/implicationsSince it was found that mental contrasting promotes integrative agreement, it is important to learn more about the psychological processes that mediate and moderate this effect. Another related line of research would examine the application of the findings to other bargaining scenarios. One further future line of research should combine mental contrasting with planning strategies.Originality/valueThe findings of the paper have implications for both self‐regulation and negotiation research. The result that mental contrasting fosters integrative solutions reflects its potential to help negotiators effectively discriminate among feasible and unfeasible components of a multi‐faceted goal (integrative agreement). For negotiation research, the paper identifies an effective self‐regulatory strategy for producing high‐quality agreements.

Abstract. People's immediate needs influence how they perceive other's needs – people project their needs onto others. Two studies sought to replicate and extend previous research by identifying moderators of need projection: need satisfaction and a global sense of similarity. Projection increased when a strong need to quench one's thirst was induced and not satisfied (Study 1). Projection of the need to quench one's thirst increased when existing thirst and the global sense of similarity with the target person were high, but again only when the need was not satisfied (Study 2). Visceral needs influence judgments about other people's needs when the individual is experiencing the need in a given moment; lingering effects are not observed once that need is satisfied.

PurposeThis study aims to take a dual-process perspective and argues that peer influence on increasing impulse buying may also operate automatically. If-then plans, which can automate action control, may, thus, help regulate peer influence. This research extends existing literature explicating the deliberate influence of social norms.Design/methodology/approachStudy 1 (N= 120) obtained causal evidence that forming an implementation intention (i.e. an if-then plan designed to automate action control) reduces peer impact on impulse buying in a laboratory experiment with young adults (students) selecting food items. Study 2 (N= 686) obtained correlational evidence for the role of norms, automaticity and implementation intentions in impulse buying using a large sample of high-school adolescents working on a vignette about clothes-shopping.FindingsIf-then plans reduced impulse purchases in the laboratory (Study 1). Both reported deliberation on peer norms and the reported automaticity of shopping with peers predicted impulse buying but an implementation intention to be thriftily reduced these links (Study 2).Research limitations/implicationsThis research highlights the role of automatic social processes in problematic consumer behaviour. Promising field studies and neuropsychological experiments are discussed.Practical implicationsYoung consumers can gain control over automatic peer influence by using if-then plans, thereby reducing impulse buying.Originality/valueThis research helps understand new precursors of impulse buying in understudied European samples of young consumers.

The proliferation of new parties since the 1960's poses a challenge to established models of party behavior: too often, too many parties lose in elections. This seemingly nonstrategic behavior contributes to lively democratic societies, but is poorly understood by existing theories on political parties. This dissertation argues that insights from Self-Determination Theory can augment existing rational choice models of political behavior, and makes three specific contributions to better understanding the full range of political behavior. The first contribution shows that the empirical literature on the strategic entry of new parties is based on biased data, and that many findings from the strategic entry literature are likely driven by voter behavior rather than party behavior. The contribution argues that by excluding small and unsuccessful parties, the existing literature is based on data that systematically excludes observations that would contradict the strategic entry hypothesis. Once appropriate statistical models are applied to unbiased data, no support for strategic party entry is found. The second contribution uses an email experiment to observe whether successful and unsuccessful direct candidates have different sensitivities to extrinsic incentives. The experiment finds that unsuccessful candidates reply less often, but that - in contrast to successful candidates - they do not discriminate between responses that promise extrinsic benefits and those that do not. These findings are explained with the framework of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from Self-Determination Theory. According to this framework, intrinsic motivation is lost in more competitive environments. Thus, the discriminating behavior of successful candidates is explained by lower levels of intrinsic motivation. The third contribution examines whether the framework of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation can help to understand party survival. Here, it is argued that party formation is a product of intrinsic motivation, but that once a party receives enough votes to win extrinsic benefit, intrinsic motivation is crowded out. Hence, such parties will only survive if extrinsic motivation can compensate for this loss. The analysis shows that the lifespan of parties that won enough votes to receive public party financing heavily depends on electoral success, while the survival of parties that have never received public financing depends much less on electoral success. The presented research suggests that, similar to the paradox of voting, there is a paradox of candidacy. It is argued that the intrinsic–extrinsic motivation framework can help to resolve this paradox and that the crowding-out effect represents a particularly interesting addition to existing theories.

Abstract. We explore motivational processes stemming from bicultural identity goals of being Turkish and being German by investigating the effect of identity goal incompleteness versus completeness in the two identity goals on the use of multifinal means to self-symbolize German–Turkish cultural identity goals. Individuals incomplete in either or both identity goals were more likely than individuals complete in both identity goals to engage in multifinal self-symbolizing via social media activity (Experiment 1) and helping (Experiment 2). Incompleteness regarding the two identity goals had an additive effect on effort and elicited distinct patterns of subjectively experienced incompleteness for German and Turkish cultural identity goals (Experiment 2). These findings offer new insights relevant for symbolic self-completion theory and goal systems theory.

Can children improve shielding an ongoing task from distractions by if-then planning (i.e., by forming implementation intentions)? In an experimental study, the situational and personal limits of action control by distraction-inhibiting implementation intentions ("If a distraction comes up, then I will ignore it!") were tested by comparing them to simple goal intentions ("I will ignore distractions!"). Goal intentions were sufficient to successfully ignore distractions of low attractiveness. In the presence of moderately and highly attractive distractions, as well as a distraction presented out of the children's sight, however, only implementation intentions improved children's task shielding, as indicated by faster response times in an ongoing categorization task and shorter periods of looking at highly attractive distractions presented out of their field of vision. These findings held true regardless of the children's temperament and language competency. Implications for research on planning and developmental research on self-control are discussed.