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The poultry industry in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is faced with feed insecurity, associated with high cost of feeds, and feed safety, associated with locally produced feeds often contaminated with mycotoxins. Mycotoxins, including aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), trichothecenes, and zearalenone (ZEN), are common contaminants of poultry feeds and feed ingredients from SSA. These mycotoxins cause deleterious effects on the health and productivity of chickens and can also be present in poultry food products, thereby posing a health hazard to human consumers of these products. This review summarizes studies of major mycotoxins in poultry feeds, feed ingredients, and poultry food products from SSA as well as aflatoxicosis outbreaks. Additionally reviewed are the worldwide regulation of mycotoxins in poultry feeds, the impact of major mycotoxins in the production of chickens, and the postharvest use of mycotoxin detoxifiers. In most studies, AFs are most commonly quantified, and levels above the European Union regulatory limits of 20 μg/kg are reported. Trichothecenes, FBs, ZEN, and OTA are also reported but are less frequently analyzed. Co-occurrences of mycotoxins, especially AFs and FBs, are reported in some studies. The effects of AFs on chickens' health and productivity, carryover to their products, as well as use of mycotoxin binders are reported in few studies conducted in SSA. More research should therefore be conducted in SSA to evaluate occurrences, toxicological effects, and mitigation strategies to prevent the toxic effects of mycotoxins.

Introduction Mycotoxin producing fungi contaminate feeds pre- or post harvest and produce aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2. Aflatoxin B1 is a class 1 human carcinogen and is converted to aflatoxin M1 by cows and secreted in milk. Aflatoxin M1 is a class 2B (possible) carcinogen and is associated with stunting in children. Aflatoxin B1 in feeds causes a decrease in milk production, reduced feed conversion efficiency and reduced fertility. A cross-sectional study to assess the economic costs of aflatoxins was done in five counties in Kenya. Methods A map of the five agro-ecological zones of Kenya was used to select the study sites: Kisii and Bungoma (temperate), Tharaka-Nithi (humid), Kwale (sub-humid), and Isiolo(semi-arid). One sublocation was randomly selected from each county. Multistage cluster sampling was done with sub-locations, then villages, then dairy farmers (Dohoo et al., 2012). Milk samples were collected from the dairy farmers. Feed samples were collected from the dairy farmers, feed traders and feed manufacturers. Aflatoxin B1 and M1 quantification in dairy feeds and milk was done using a competitive ELISA. Possible economic costs of aflatoxins were estimated using annual quantities/market prices of feeds and milk having aflatoxin B1 or M1 respectively above the WHO/FAO standards. Findings and interpretations Sixty two of 101 (61.4%) dairy feed samples from feed manufacturers had aflatoxin B1 levels above the FAO/WHO/Kenya limit of 5 ppb. If this Kenyan legislation would be enforced, the possible economic cost per year for dairy feed manufacturers would be 22.2 billion US$. Seventeen of 118 (14.4%) dairy feed samples from farmers had aflatoxin B1 levels above 120 ppb. Aflatoxin B1 concentrations above 120 ppb in dairy feeds has been shown to cause a 25 % drop in milk production(Guthrie and Bedell, 1979). The annual cost for farmers in Kenya feeding their cows on dairy feeds with aflatoxin B1 above 120 ppb is estimated at 37.4 million US$. Of the 283 milk samples from the five counties, 10.3% had aflatoxin B1 levels above WHO/FAO limit of 50 ppt which would cost dairy farmers 113.4 million US $ per year, if legislation was enforced. Education of farmers, feed manufacturers and traders on good agricultural and feed storage practices could reduce the level of contamination and multiplication of aflatoxin producing fungi and increase profits for the dairy farmers. ; Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Finland

Aflatoxins are secondary fungal metabolites that contaminate cereals, other crops and animal source foods and are a recognized health risk. Kenya has had several outbreaks of aflatoxicosis affecting humans and pets. The aim of this study was to compare aflatoxin levels in cereals, the staple diet of Kenyans, in Nandi where aflatoxicosis has not been reported despite being a maize growing area. Maize, sorghum and millet were sampled from households and also from markets serving various villages in the selected sub-locations (408 samples). The samples were tested for total aflatoxin contamination using cELISA. Households in the study sub-locations depended on homegrown grains than market sourced. Sixty seven point nine percent (72/106), 73.3% (44/60) and 65.7% (67/102) of maize samples collected from Laboret, Kilibwoni and Chepkongony were contaminated with aflatoxins ranging between 0.17-5.3 parts per billion (ppb). Ninety two point nine percent (13/14), 100% (9/9) and 87.5% (14/16) of millet samples from Laboret, Kilibwoni and Chepkongony were positive for aflatoxin at a range of 0.14-6.4 ppb. Fifty percent (9/18), 36.4% (8/22) and 27.3% (6/22) of sorghum samples from Laboret, Kilibwoni and Chepkongony, respectively were contaminated with aflatoxins beyond Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS) maximum tolerable limits of 10 ppb. To manage aflatoxin contamination of the cereals in Nandi, the county government needs to step up awareness creation of the dangers posed by chronic aflatoxin exposure to households through cereals and promote good Agricultural practices.

Aflatoxins are secondary fungal metabolites that contaminate cereals, other crops and animal source foods and are a recognized health risk. Kenya has had several outbreaks of aflatoxicosis affecting humans and pets. The aim of this study was to compare aflatoxin levels in cereals, the staple diet of Kenyans, in Nandi where aflatoxicosis has not been reported despite being a maize growing area. Maize, sorghum and millet were sampled from households and also from markets serving various villages in the selected sub-locations (408 samples). The samples were tested for total aflatoxin contamination using cELISA. Households in the study sub-locations depended on homegrown grains than market sourced. Sixty seven point nine percent (72/106), 73.3% (44/60) and 65.7% (67/102) of maize samples collected from Laboret, Kilibwoni and Chepkongony were contaminated with aflatoxins ranging between 0.17-5.3 parts per billion (ppb). Ninety two point nine percent (13/14), 100% (9/9) and 87.5% (14/16) of millet samples from Laboret, Kilibwoni and Chepkongony were positive for aflatoxin at a range of 0.14-6.4 ppb. Fifty percent (9/18), 36.4% (8/22) and 27.3% (6/22) of sorghum samples from Laboret, Kilibwoni and Chepkongony, respectively were contaminated with aflatoxins beyond Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS) maximum tolerable limits of 10 ppb. To manage aflatoxin contamination of the cereals in Nandi, the county government needs to step up awareness creation of the dangers posed by chronic aflatoxin exposure to households through cereals and promote good Agricultural practices.

The poultry industry in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is faced with feed insecurity, associated with high cost of feeds, and feed safety, associated with locally produced feeds often contaminated with mycotoxins. Mycotoxins, including aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), trichothecenes, and zearalenone (ZEN), are common contaminants of poultry feeds and feed ingredients from SSA. These mycotoxins cause deleterious effects on the health and productivity of chickens and can also be present in poultry food products, thereby posing a health hazard to human consumers of these products. This review summarizes studies of major mycotoxins in poultry feeds, feed ingredients, and poultry food products from SSA as well as aflatoxicosis outbreaks. Additionally reviewed are the worldwide regulation of mycotoxins in poultry feeds, the impact of major mycotoxins in the production of chickens, and the postharvest use of mycotoxin detoxifiers. In most studies, AFs are most commonly quantified, and levels above the European Union regulatory limits of 20 μg/kg are reported. Trichothecenes, FBs, ZEN, and OTA are also reported but are less frequently analyzed. Co-occurrences of mycotoxins, especially AFs and FBs, are reported in some studies. The effects of AFs on chickens' health and productivity, carryover to their products, as well as use of mycotoxin binders are reported in few studies conducted in SSA. More research should therefore be conducted in SSA to evaluate occurrences, toxicological effects, and mitigation strategies to prevent the toxic effects of mycotoxins.

The poultry industry in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is faced with feed insecurity, associated with high cost of feeds, and feed safety, associated with locally produced feeds often contaminated with mycotoxins. Mycotoxins, including aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), trichothecenes, and zearalenone (ZEN), are common contaminants of poultry feeds and feed ingredients from SSA. These mycotoxins cause deleterious effects on the health and productivity of chickens and can also be present in poultry food products, thereby posing a health hazard to human consumers of these products. This review summarizes studies of major mycotoxins in poultry feeds, feed ingredients, and poultry food products from SSA as well as aflatoxicosis outbreaks. Additionally reviewed are the worldwide regulation of mycotoxins in poultry feeds, the impact of major mycotoxins in the production of chickens, and the postharvest use of mycotoxin detoxifiers. In most studies, AFs are most commonly quantified, and levels above the European Union regulatory limits of 20 mu g/kg are reported. Trichothecenes, FBs, ZEN, and OTA are also reported but are less frequently analyzed. Co-occurrences of mycotoxins, especially AFs and FBs, are reported in some studies. The effects of AFs on chickens' health and productivity, carryover to their products, as well as use of mycotoxin binders are reported in few studies conducted in SSA. More research should therefore be conducted in SSA to evaluate occurrences, toxicological effects, and mitigation strategies to prevent the toxic effects of mycotoxins.

The poultry industry in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is faced with feed insecurity, associated with high cost of feeds, and feed safety, associated with locally produced feeds often contaminated with mycotoxins. Mycotoxins, including aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), trichothecenes, and zearalenone (ZEN), are common contaminants of poultry feeds and feed ingredients from SSA. These mycotoxins cause deleterious effects on the health and productivity of chickens and can also be present in poultry food products, thereby posing a health hazard to human consumers of these products. This review summarizes studies of major mycotoxins in poultry feeds, feed ingredients, and poultry food products from SSA as well as aflatoxicosis outbreaks. Additionally reviewed are the worldwide regulation of mycotoxins in poultry feeds, the impact of major mycotoxins in the production of chickens, and the postharvest use of mycotoxin detoxifiers. In most studies, AFs are most commonly quantified, and levels above the European Union regulatory limits of 20 mu g/kg are reported. Trichothecenes, FBs, ZEN, and OTA are also reported but are less frequently analyzed. Co-occurrences of mycotoxins, especially AFs and FBs, are reported in some studies. The effects of AFs on chickens' health and productivity, carryover to their products, as well as use of mycotoxin binders are reported in few studies conducted in SSA. More research should therefore be conducted in SSA to evaluate occurrences, toxicological effects, and mitigation strategies to prevent the toxic effects of mycotoxins.

The poultry industry in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is faced with feed insecurity, associated with high cost of feeds, and feed safety, associated with locally produced feeds often contaminated with mycotoxins. Mycotoxins, including aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), trichothecenes, and zearalenone (ZEN), are common contaminants of poultry feeds and feed ingredients from SSA. These mycotoxins cause deleterious effects on the health and productivity of chickens and can also be present in poultry food products, thereby posing a health hazard to human consumers of these products. This review summarizes studies of major mycotoxins in poultry feeds, feed ingredients, and poultry food products from SSA as well as aflatoxicosis outbreaks. Additionally reviewed are the worldwide regulation of mycotoxins in poultry feeds, the impact of major mycotoxins in the production of chickens, and the postharvest use of mycotoxin detoxifiers. In most studies, AFs are most commonly quantified, and levels above the European Union regulatory limits of 20 μg/kg are reported. Trichothecenes, FBs, ZEN, and OTA are also reported but are less frequently analyzed. Co-occurrences of mycotoxins, especially AFs and FBs, are reported in some studies. The effects of AFs on chickens' health and productivity, carryover to their products, as well as use of mycotoxin binders are reported in few studies conducted in SSA. More research should therefore be conducted in SSA to evaluate occurrences, toxicological effects, and mitigation strategies to prevent the toxic effects of mycotoxins.

The dairy value chain of Nairobi is comprised, in its majority, of small-scale independent enterprises that operate within a complex interlinked system. In this complexity, the coordination and power structures of the system may have major influences on the management of dairy food safety. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the governance structure and challenges faced by stakeholders throughout the Nairobi dairy value chain and assess their potential implications on food safety. Qualitative data were collected through focus group discussions and key informant interviews based on a dairy value chain mapping framework previously developed. Thematic analysis enabled identification of governance themes, key challenges and analysis of their implications on food safety. Themes were organized depending on their association with farmers (informal settlement or peri-urban), dairy cooperatives, dairy traders, processing companies, retailers or government officers. The identified governance themes included: i) weak linkage between government and farmers, ii) inadequate compliance with government regulations by traders and retailers, iii) emphasis on business licenses and permits for revenue rather than for food safety, iv) multiple licensing resulting in high business cost and lack of compliance, v) fragmented regulation, vi) unfair competition and vii) sanctions that do not always result in compliance. The key challenges identified included, among others: i) inadequate farmer support, ii) harassment of traders and retailers and iii) high business costs for traders, retailers, dairy cooperatives and large processors. The implication of governance and challenges of food safety were, among others: i) inadequate extension services, ii) insufficient cold chain, iii) delivery of adulterated and low milk quality to bulking centers, iv) inadequate food safety training and v) lack of policies for management of waste milk. The range of issues highlighted are based on stakeholders' perceptions and reflects the complexity of the relationships between them. Many of the governance themes demonstrate the linkages that are both beneficial or confrontational between the formal and informal sectors, and between industry and regulatory authorities, with possible direct food safety consequences. Findings obtained provide indications to decision-makers of potential governance areas that could help improve efficiency and food safety along the dairy value chain. ; Medical Research Council, United Kingdom ; Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council, United Kingdom ; Natural Environment Research Council, United Kingdom ; Economic and Social Research Council, United Kingdom ; Peer Review