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North American flying squirrels (Glaucomys spp.) are social species that communally den and exhibit home range overlap. However, observations on home range overlap tend to come from live-trapped individuals and it is unknown whether overlap occurs among individuals belonging to the same social network. Since flying squirrels communally den with familiar individuals, their use of artificial nest boxes allows for the radio-collaring and tracking of squirrels within the same social network. We captured and radio-collared northern flying squirrels (G. sabrinus Shaw) found communally denning in nest boxes in the Appalachian Mountains in the eastern United States. We tracked squirrels captured from the same nest box (i.e., nest box groups) to determine home range overlap and subsequent den sharing between familiar individuals within those nest box groups. We found that amount of home range overlap did not differ between male-male, male-female, and female-female dyads, indicating that non-reproductive females and scrotal males are not territorial at the 95% or 50% home range level. Regardless of sex, all dyads had a significantly higher probability of home range overlap (PHR) at the 95% than the 50% home range level (i.e., overlap between squirrels decreases in core areas of their home range). We also found flying squirrels subsequently denned with familiar individuals during 20.9% of occasions post-collaring. Our study provides important information for understanding space use within flying squirrel social networks. Further work should be conducted to determine space use between familiar individuals including seasonal shifts in space use, degree of individual relatedness, and potential territoriality in females denning with young up to and following juvenile dispersal. ; U.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceUS Fish & Wildlife Service; North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission; National Park Service; North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission Pittman-Robertson [W-66-R-1]; US Fish and Wildlife Endangered Species Recovery Implementation [F11AC01265]; National Park Service Southern Appalachian Cooperative Ecosystem Study Unit [P12AC13175]; West Virginia Division of Highways [T699-FLY/SQ-1.00]; Grants-in-Aid for Scientific ResearchMinistry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan (MEXT)Japan Society for the Promotion of ScienceGrants-in-Aid for Scientific Research (KAKENHI) [11F01701] Funding Source: KAKEN ; Published version ; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission; National Park Service; West Virginia Division of Highways, Grant/Award Number: T699-FLY/SQ-1.00; North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission Pittman-Robertson, Grant/Award Number: W-66-R-1; US Fish and Wildlife Endangered Species Recovery Implementation, Grant/Award Number: F11AC01265; National Park Service Southern Appalachian Cooperative Ecosystem Study Unit, Grant/Award Number: P12AC13175 ; Public domain authored by a U.S. government employee

Microhexura montivaga (Spruce-fir Moss Spider) is a federally endangered arachnid endemic to high-elevation montane conifer forests of the southern Appalachian Mountains. The spider is cryptic and difficult to monitor because this species lives in the interface between the bryophyte mat and the rock surface. Since temporary removal of the bryophyte mat is necessary to monitor the spider. surveyors may negatively impact the spider's habitat during monitoring. To help inform survey protocol for this endangered species, we studied reattachment rates of bryophyte mats to rock surfaces after their removal. In 2017, we surveyed sixty 10 cm x 10 cm plots, assigning a plot to either control or treatment (i.e., application of water post-reattachment). We monitored plots for 1 year post-survey to determine reattachment rates. The majority of plots (70%) reestablished after 1 year, whereas 15% did not reattach or showed substantial prolonged (e.g., similar to 1 year) desiccation and 15% completely fell off or had 100% prolonged desiccation and were chlorotic. We found that mat depth and overstory canopy cover had no effect on mat reestablishment, although bryophyte type did. We found no difference between treatment and control plots, suggesting that no treatment is needed for mats to reestablish under the conditions described. Rock slope significantly influenced reestablishment rates, highlighting that surveying bryophyte mats on slopes >80% may diminish or destroy habitat. Further research is needed to determine long-term monitoring effects on the spider and its habitat, especially in relation to disturbance regimes and ecological restoration of Picea rubens (Red Spruce). ; US Fish and Wildlife Service Asheville Field Office (FWS) [4500085700] ; Published version ; We thank Sue Cameron, Fred Coyle, Sheryl Bryan, and Gary Kauffman for their assistance and thoughtful insight over the duration of this project. Foster Levy, Andrew Landsman, and two anonymous reviewers provided comments that improved this manuscript. This research was funded by the US Fish and Wildlife Service Asheville Field Office (FWS Agreement #4500085700). Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the US Government. All work was conducted under US Fish and Wildlife Service Endangered and Threatened Wildlife Permit #YE34778A-2. The authors declare no conflicts of interest relating to this work. ; Public domain authored by a U.S. government employee

Little is known about hypogeous, sequestrate fungi (i.e., truffles) in the eastern United States. Since the fruiting bodies of these fungi are part of the diet of multiple rodent species, filling data gaps is important to understanding more about truffle species distribution and habitat associations. During a microhabitat study on radio-collared Glaucomys sabrinus fuscus (Virginia Northern Flying Squirrel) in 2013, we opportunistically sampled truffles at small-mammal digs and scratches within our microhabitat plots. All sampling was conducted within known squirrel-foraging home ranges. We found 3 Elaphomyces species: E. macrosporus, E. verruculosus, and E. americanum. Our observations of E. macroporus are the first from West Virginia. Herein, we describe the microhabitat associations for each fungal species. We suggest using small-mammal digs and scratches as potential indicators to opportunistically gather more information on truffle species in coniferous forests of the eastern United States. ; West Virginia Division of Highways [T669-FLY/SQ-1.00] ; Funding for this study was provided by West Virginia Division of Highways (Grant #T669-FLY/SQ-1.00). D. Richardson, M. Gilley, and 2 anonymous reviewers provided comments that improved this manuscript. The use of any trade, product, or firm names does not imply endorsement by the US government. The authors state no conflicts of interest in regard to this wor k. ; Public domain authored by a U.S. government employee

Context Understanding habitat selection is important for determining conservation and management strategies for endangered species. The Carolina northern flying squirrel (CNFS; Glaucomys sabrinus coloratus) is an endangered subspecies found in the high-elevation montane forests of the southern Appalachians, USA. The primary use of nest boxes to monitor CNFS has provided biased information on habitat use for this subspecies, as nest boxes are typically placed in suitable denning habitat. Aims We conducted a radio-telemetry study on CNFS to determine home range, den site selection and habitat use at multiple spatial scales. Methods We radio-collared 21 CNFS in 2012 and 2014–15. We tracked squirrels to diurnal den sites and during night-time activity. Key results The MCP (minimum convex polygon) home range at 95% for males was 5.2±1.2ha and for females was 4.0±0.7. The BRB (biased random bridge) home range at 95% for males was 10.8±3.8ha and for females was 8.3±2.1. Den site (n=81) selection occurred more frequently in montane conifer dominate forests (81.4%) vs northern hardwood forests or conifer–northern hardwood forests (9.9% and 8.7%, respectively). We assessed habitat selection using Euclidean distance-based analysis at the 2nd order and 3rd order scale. We found that squirrels were non-randomly selecting for habitat at both 2nd and 3rd order scales. Conclusions At both spatial scales, CNFS preferentially selected for montane conifer forests more than expected based on availability on the landscape. Squirrels selected neither for nor against northern hardwood forests, regardless of availability on the landscape. Additionally, CNFS denned in montane conifer forests more than other habitat types. Implications Our results highlight the importance of montane conifer to CNFS in the southern Appalachians. Management and restoration activities that increase the quality, connectivity and extent of this naturally rare forest type may be important for long-term conservation of this subspecies, especially with the impending threat of anthropogenic climate change.

New technologies allow for more efficient and effective monitoring of rare or elusive species. However, standardizing protocol to ensure high detection rates is important prior to widespread use of a new technique. The use of ultrasonic acoustic detectors to survey for flying squirrels (Glaucomys spp.) is a novel method that is more efficient than traditional methods. However, certain methodologies for this technique still need to be refined. During 2015, we conducted a seasonal and habitat quality study on the endangered Carolina northern flying squirrel (G. sabrinus coloratus) in western North Carolina, USA. Our seasonal study examined differences in probability of detection (POD) and latency to detection (LTD) at 30 high-quality sites across 10 survey nights in spring, summer, and autumn. The habitat quality study focused on POD and LTD among 15 sites with varying habitat quality (5 High, 5 Medium, 5 Low) across 20 survey nights. We found POD similar between seasons, with POD 15-20% greater during spring. The LTD was comparable among seasons. We found that POD and LTD varied at sites with different habitat quality. The POD was similar between High and Medium sites (0.26 +/- 0.04 SE and 0.29 +/- 0.05, respectively), but greater than Low sites (0.02 +/- 0.02). The LTD was not different among sites with differing habitat quality, although LTD at High sites was 2.7 and 4.5 times lower than Medium and Low sites, respectively. Trill calls, the most distinctive species-specific call type produced by species of flying squirrels, was recorded at greater rates in spring versus other times of the year. Our results indicate flying squirrels can be surveyed during any season, although habitat quality needs to be considered when determining survey length. For Carolina northern flying squirrel, the optimal time to perform acoustic surveys is during the spring season for 6-10 survey nights at sites with high or medium habitat quality. (c) 2020 The Wildlife Society. ; North Carolina Pittman-Robertson grant [W-66-R-1]; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Endangered Species Recovery Implementation grant [F11AC01265]; National Park Service Southern Appalachian Cooperative Ecosystem Study Unit [P12AC13175] ; We would like to thank K. Weeks, S. Cameron, M. Crockett, M. McCombs, S. Bryan, E. Corey, R. McGraw, B. Cherry, P. Super, J. Yarkovich, and B. Stiver for logistical support. S. Higdon, K. Parker, A. Garnish, N. Yates, and H. B. Hound provided assistance with field work and data management. The Southern Appalachian Highlands Conservancy provided housing. North Carolina Pittman-Robertson grant #W-66-R-1, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Endangered Species Recovery Implementation grant #F11AC01265, and National Park Service Southern Appalachian Cooperative Ecosystem Study Unit agreement #P12AC13175 provided funding for this project. This research was conducted under North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission Endangered Species Permit #14-ES00401, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Endangered Species Research Recovery Permit #TE34778A-0, North Carolina State Parks Permit #2015-0023, and National Park Service Permit #GRSM-2015-SCI-1226. Associate Editor P. Neuhaus, K. Weeks, S. Hirt, and 2 anonymous reviewers provided comments that helped improve this manuscript. The authors of this manuscript have no known conflicts of interest. The use of trade, product, or firm names does not imply endorsement by the U.S. government. ; Public domain authored by a U.S. government employee

In the presence of a predator, prey may alter their temporal activity patterns to reduce the risk of an encounter that may induce injury or death. Prey perception of predation risk and antipredator responses may increase in the presence of dependent offspring. We conducted a camera trap study during summer 2015 in North Carolina and Tennessee, USA to evaluate temporal avoidance of a predator (coyote Canis latrans) by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). We analyzed activity patterns of bucks, does, and nursery groups (i.e., groups that included fawns) relative to those of coyotes to determine the coefficient of overlap (Delta) using a kernel density estimator. We found that bucks and does had similar Delta with coyotes [Delta(1) = 0.729 (0.629-0.890) and Delta(1) = 0.686 (0.558-0.816, respectively] and exhibited crepuscular activity patterns comparable to those of coyotes. However, nursery groups displayed a dramatically different activity pattern: unimodal activity was concentrated in the middle of the day with little overlap with coyote activity [Delta(1) = 0.362 (0.176-0.491)]. Because adult deer are rarely prey for coyotes, whereas fawns are common prey during summer, the shift in activity patterns of nursery groups demonstrates a behavioral shift likely aimed at avoiding coyote predation on fawns. ; Public domain authored by a U.S. government employee

Red spruce (Picea rubens) and red spruce-northern hardwood mixed stands once covered as much as 300,000 ha in the Central Appalachians, but now comprise no more than 21,000 ha. Recently, interest in restoration of this forest type has increased because red spruce forests provide habitat for a number of rare animal species. Our study reports the results of an understory red spruce release experiment in hardwood-dominated stands that have a small component of understory red spruce. In 2005, 188 target spruce were identified in sample plots at six locations in central West Virginia. We projected a vertical cylinder above the crown of all target spruces, and in 2007, we performed a release treatment whereby overtopping hardwoods were treated with herbicide using a stem injection technique. Release treatments removed 0-10% (Control), 11-50% (Low), 51-89% (Medium), and >= 90% (High) of the basal area of overtopping trees. We also took canopy photographs at the time of each remeasurement in 2007, 2010, and 2013, and compared basal removal treatments and resulting 2010 canopy openness and understory light values. The high treatment level provided significantly greater six-year dbh and height growth than the other treatment levels. Based on these results, we propose that a tree-centered release approach utilizing small canopy gaps that emulate the historical, gap-phase disturbance regime provides a good strategy for red spruce restoration in hardwood forests where overstory spruce are virtually absent, and where red spruce is largely relegated to the understory. ; USDA Forest ServiceUnited States Department of Agriculture (USDA)United States Forest Service; Division of Forestry and Natural Resources, West Virginia University; US Geological SurveyUnited States Geological Survey; West Virginia Division of Highways ; Initial funding was provided by the USDA Forest Service and the Division of Forestry and Natural Resources, West Virginia University, with additional support from the US Geological Survey and the West Virginia Division of Highways. Adele Fenwick produced the map. Kent Karriker, Shane Jones, and Nathan Beane provided helpful initial reviews of this manuscript. This is scientific article No. 3223 of the West Virginia Agriculture and Forestry Experiment Station. ; Public domain authored by a U.S. government employee