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AbstractA proliferation of data gathered to predict a critically important, urgent and social‐policy related question often leads to debate and divergent model results. This classic feature of complex systems is currently being evidenced in assessing a potentially serious feedback response of soil respiration with increased temperatures due to global climate change. Here we apply soft systems modelling (SSM) for a detailed analysis of the "soft" aspects of the topic. Supported by a literature review, we conclude that that varied perspectives on the system's dynamics and its web of controlling factors have led to seemingly conflicting results. We present a simplified hierarchy organizing the comprehensive universe of interacting controls across scales. This model is implemented as a relational database, including relationships between factors such as nesting and feedbacks. We conclude that although this model is currently limited to pairwise interactions, it provides a useful tool to assess potential interactions and factors of interest. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Objective: To examine the effects of keyswitch orientation on joint torques. Background: The fingertip produces primarily vertical forces during single-finger tapping on a computer keyswitch. However, horizontal force components within the sagittal plane of the finger could reduce net joint torques. Method: Eleven participants tapped on a keyswitch oriented in three directions: vertical, tilted 30° such that when pressed it moved away from the user (similar to a positive-tilt keyboard), and tilted 30° such that when pressed it moved toward the user (similar to a negative-tilt keyboard). Participants also tapped on a prototype cantilever keyswitch design in which the key cap moves along the arc of a bending beam gradually away from the user. Miniature electro-optical goniometers measured the finger posture, and a two-axis force sensor measured fingertip forces. Results: Tapping on a keyswitch oriented such that it moves away from the user when pressed reduced net joint torques by 47% relative to tapping on a vertically orientated keyswitch and by 56% relative to tapping on a keyswitch oriented toward the user, whereas the cantilever design resulted in 14% decreases in net joint torque relative to the vertical orientation. Conclusion: Reductions of torques resulted from decreasing the moment arm of the fingertip force about the joints. Application: Keyboard design should incorporate keyswitch mechanism angles along with other postural and geometric constraints to reduce exposure of the finger joints and muscles to force during typing.

In two experiments, White college students provided a local high-school student with feedback on her substandard college admissions essay, via electronic mail. Motivation to provide appropriate feedback was manipulated by alleging comparison to experts or novices. Experiment 1 compared feedback to White versus Black recipients, with the expectation that accountability would attenuate previously observed positivity biases in cross-race feedback. Experiment 2 manipulated concern about being prejudiced by providing false scores on an Implicit Associations Task (IAT)-type task; this experiment examined whether accountability plus attenuated concern about prejudice could encourage feedback to Blacks that was objectively helpful. Feedback characteristics included evaluative connotation, communication style, subjective feedback helpfulness and objective feedback quality. Findings generally supported these hypotheses. We discuss the implications of our findings for intergroup contact situations, including the potential pitfalls that face feedback-givers responding to superior performance.

Measuring coastal subsidence is essential to evaluating hazards associated with sea-level rise. This Review discusses the processes driving coastal subsidence, space-borne and land-based measurement techniques, as well as models for simulating observed subsidence and predicting future trends. Coastal subsidence contributes to relative sea-level rise and exacerbates flooding hazards, with the at-risk population expected to triple by 2070. Natural processes of vertical land motion, such as tectonics, glacial isostatic adjustment and sediment compaction, as well as anthropogenic processes, such as fluid extraction, lead to globally variable subsidence rates. In this Review, we discuss the key physical processes driving vertical land motion in coastal areas. Use of space-borne and land-based techniques and the associated uncertainties for monitoring subsidence are examined, as are physics-based models used to explain contemporary subsidence rates and to obtain future projections. Steady and comparatively low rates of subsidence and uplift owing to tectonic processes and glacial isostatic adjustment can be assumed for the twenty-first century. By contrast, much higher and variable subsidence rates occur owing to compaction associated with sediment loading and fluid extraction, as well as large earthquakes. These rates can be up to two orders of magnitude higher than the present-day rate of global sea-level rise. Multi-objective predictive models are required to account for the underlying physical processes and socio-economic factors that drive subsidence. ; US National Aeronautics and Space AdministrationNational Aeronautics & Space Administration (NASA) [80NSSC170567, 80NSSC17K0566]; US National Science FoundationNational Science Foundation (NSF) [EAR-1735630, EAR-1349311, EAR-1624795, EAR-1624533]; EU Marie Skodowska-Curie Individual Fellowship [894476]; International Geoscience Programme (IGCP) project [639] ; Published version ; The authors thank the reviewers for providing insightful comments and suggestions and J. Flocks for providing constructive comments on the manuscript. M.S. is supported by the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (grant no. 80NSSC170567) and the US National Science Foundation (grant no. EAR-1735630). J.F. is supported by the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (grant no. 80NSSC17K0566). T.E.T. has been supported by the US National Science Foundation (grant no. EAR-1349311). T.D. is supported by the US National Science Foundation (grant nos. EAR-1624795 and EAR-1624533). P.S.J.M. is supported by an EU Marie Skodowska-Curie Individual Fellowship (grant no. 894476 - InSPiRED - H2020-MSCA-IF-2019). This work is a contribution to the PALSEA programme and International Geoscience Programme (IGCP) project 639. Any use of trade, firm or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the US Government. ; Public domain authored by a U.S. government employee

Acknowledgements We gratefully acknowledge funding from The Scottish Government's Rural and Environment Science and Analytical Services Division (RESAS). We are grateful to the Bioservices Division, Moredun Research Institute, for expert care and assistance with animals. We also thank the staff of Parasitology Department at Moredun Research Institute for their technical assistance with the controlled efficacy test, and Steve Paterson for his assistance in analysing initial life history data. ; Peer reviewed ; Publisher PDF