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Whereas rights are commonly regarded as deriving from membership, T. H. Marshall raises the possibility that appropriate combinations of rights may be constitutive of membership in the form of citizenship. Theoretical discussion must take seriously the derivation of membership from rights, which requires attention to the concrete sociological process by which rights become endowed with meaning. Marshall reproduces the standard British ambivalence about the "national," which is variously & sometimes confusingly distinguished from the "local," the "private," & the "foreign." The civilization of which Marshall suggests that it should be a "common heritage" is historically situated; in fact, it is precisely because it is in one sense already common that social pressure gradually causes it to be recognized as such. In other words, it is possible to show that Marshall's analysis specifically addresses the issues of citizenship in the nation-state. Its potential relevance beyond the nation-state requires, therefore, explicit discussion of the social basis of belonging that Marshall, for his own purposes, was able to take for granted. 28 References. Adapted from the source document.

Objective. Many researchers have cited the importance of institutional legacies to explain why legislators resist transferring tasks from one agency to another but leave undefined exactly what constitutes these legacies. This analysis concretely defines institutional legacies as organized interests that shape the range of options available for programmatic implementation. Methods. Using a pooled, time-series-ordered probit model for the US states, 1988-1995, this article focuses on the transition from court-based systems to administrative agencies in making paternity determinations. Results. Lawmakers are less likely to move to administrative systems in states where there are family courts, elected judges, & a large number of lawyers organized into the American Bar Assoc. The presence of women legislators, however, can mitigate these legacy effects & move the process of innovation forward. Conclusions. Institutional legacies are best conceptualized as strong, organized interests that resist relinquishing any part of their authority, even when confronted with more effective ways of achieving policy goals. 2 Tables, 48 References. Adapted from the source document.

Background: The nutritional composition of foods and beverages consumed away from the home has important implications for population health. Our objective was to determine if the serve size, energy, and sodium contents of fast foods sold at chain restaurants in New Zealand (NZ) changed between 2012 and 2016. Methods: Serve size and nutrient data were collected in annual cross-sectional surveys of all products sold at 10 major fast food chains. Changes over time may occur due to alterations in product availability or individual product reformulation. Linear regression adjusting for food group and chain was used to estimate overall changes in serve size and nutrients. Random effects mixed models were used to estimate reformulation changes on same products available for two or more years. Results: Across all products (n = 5468) increases were observed in mean serve size (+ 9 (3, 15) g, + 5%), energy density (+ 54 (27, 81) kJ/100 g, + 6%), energy per serve (+ 178 (125, 231) kJ, + 14%), and sodium per serve (+ 55 (24, 87) mg, + 12%). Sodium density did not change significantly. Four of 12 food groups (Desserts, Pizza, Sandwiches, and Salads) and four of 10 fast food chains (Domino's, Hell Pizza, Pizza Hut, and Subway) displayed large, undesirable changes for three or more (of five) outcomes (≥10%; p < 0.05). One food group (Asian) and one chain (St Pierre's) displayed large, desirable changes for two or more outcomes. The only significant reformulation change was a drop in sodium density (- 22 (- 36, - 8) mg/100 g, - 7%). Conclusions: The serve size and energy density of NZ fast food products has increased significantly over the past 5 years. Lower sodium concentration in new and reformulated products has been offset by overall increases in serve size. Continued monitoring and development and implementation of Government-led targets for serve size and nutrient content of new and existing fast food products are required.