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Abstract. The ongoing phenomenon of climate change is leading to an upsurge in the number of extreme events. Territories must adapt to these modifications in order to protect their populations and the properties present in coastal areas. The adaptation of coastal areas also aims to make them more resilient to future events. In this article, we examine two strategies for adapting to coastal risks: holding the coastal line through hard constructions such as seawalls or ripraps and the managed retreat of activities and populations to a part of the territory not exposed to hazards. In France, these approaches are financed by a solidarity insurance system at the national level as well as local taxes. These solidarity systems aim to compensate the affected populations and finance implementation of the strategies chosen by local authorities. However, the French mainland coast generally attracts affluent residents, the price of land being higher than inland. This situation induces the presence of inequalities in these territories, inequalities which can be maintained or reinforced in the short and medium term when a defense strategy based on hard constructions is implemented. In such a trajectory, it appears that these territories would be less resilient in the long term because of the maintenance costs of the structures and the uncertainties relating to the hazards (submersion, rising sea levels, erosion). Conversely, with a managed-retreat strategy, inequalities would instead be done away with since property and populations would no longer be exposed to hazards, which would cost society less and would lead these territories towards greater resilience in the long term. Only one social group would be strongly impacted by this strategy in the short term when they are subjected to a managed retreat to another part of the territory.

International audience ; 700,000 ha of the French mainland coast are low-lying and concern 1.4 million people who are exposed to coastal hazards like marine submersion (MEDDE, 2012). In the last few years and since the Xynthia storm of February 2010, different adaptation strategies were developed and implemented to protect people and property: "Managed realignment", "hold the line" or "limited intervention" when adaptation of buildings or other infrastructures is achievable. The choice between one or the other strategy is mainly based on a cost-benefit analysis with less attention to social criteria. In the North of the Charente-Maritime department, the "hold the line" strategy is the most often chosen, sometimes mixed with relocation of houses. Environmental inequalities are defined as social and intra-/ inter-generational inequalities determined both through the quality and state of the environment and through the social structure (Pye et al., 2008; Deldreve, 2015). Coastal territories in France are attractive to live and work in but this brings inequalities. Because of the high price of properties, only high-level income classes can fully benefit from coastal amenities. In addition, particular social classes are more or less exposed to coastal hazards. This paper highlights and questions some of these environmental inequalities in coastal and urban territories in France (specifically the urban community of La Rochelle, extended to the north up to the Charron municipality) and focuses upon the impact of adaptation strategies and of the insurance system. From a geo-statistical analysis, our results tend to balance the hypothesis that people who are the most disadvantaged are more exposed to hazards than the better-off. Similarly, the hypothesis that the better-off have more access to coastal amenity is not obvious. Our study, however, shows other more clear-cut results, related to political power, through the capacity to address public authorities and to obtain protection measures. From this case study, a ...

International audience ; 700,000 ha of the French mainland coast are low-lying and concern 1.4 million people who are exposed to coastal hazards like marine submersion (MEDDE, 2012). In the last few years and since the Xynthia storm of February 2010, different adaptation strategies were developed and implemented to protect people and property: "Managed realignment", "hold the line" or "limited intervention" when adaptation of buildings or other infrastructures is achievable. The choice between one or the other strategy is mainly based on a cost-benefit analysis with less attention to social criteria. In the North of the Charente-Maritime department, the "hold the line" strategy is the most often chosen, sometimes mixed with relocation of houses. Environmental inequalities are defined as social and intra-/ inter-generational inequalities determined both through the quality and state of the environment and through the social structure (Pye et al., 2008; Deldreve, 2015). Coastal territories in France are attractive to live and work in but this brings inequalities. Because of the high price of properties, only high-level income classes can fully benefit from coastal amenities. In addition, particular social classes are more or less exposed to coastal hazards. This paper highlights and questions some of these environmental inequalities in coastal and urban territories in France (specifically the urban community of La Rochelle, extended to the north up to the Charron municipality) and focuses upon the impact of adaptation strategies and of the insurance system. From a geo-statistical analysis, our results tend to balance the hypothesis that people who are the most disadvantaged are more exposed to hazards than the better-off. Similarly, the hypothesis that the better-off have more access to coastal amenity is not obvious. Our study, however, shows other more clear-cut results, related to political power, through the capacity to address public authorities and to obtain protection measures. From this case study, a ...

La protection de l'environnement s'est, dès ses origines, fondée sur les sciences naturelles et les techniques et, depuis plus récemment, elle interagit avec l'économie, mais ses relations avec des aspects sociaux ont été l'objet de moins d'attention. L'environnement appelle pourtant la préservation de la (qualité de la) vie, et l'homme est bien un animal social. Or, si l'objectif de protection de l'environnement est généralement formulé de façon consensuelle, il va évidemment se trouver décliné de façons différentes selon des différenciations sociales. La pleine prise en compte de ces interactions conduit à formuler une série de questions. Comment se répartissent les impacts environnementaux dans une société ?Comment les objectifs et les actions orientés vers la protection de l'environnement peuvent-ils être lus dans le prisme des catégories sociales ?Quels en sont plus particulièrement les bénéficiaires et les perdants ?Quels sont ceux qui peuvent faire entendre leur voix, et influencent les critères ?Quelles pistes envisager pour une limitation des impacts négatifs de la croissance économique dans un double objectif d'équité sociale et de réduction des nuisances environnementales ?Ces questions interrogent des aspects fondamentaux du développement durable et de l'écologie politique. Elles sont étudiées dans ce livre, en théorie et sur de nombreux cas pratiques ; info:eu-repo/semantics/published

International audience ; EU planning documents enhance the values of polycentrism, as a tool to promote a more efficient, equitable and sustainable development. This paper highlights how and suggests why a descriptive approach of the European urban system became progressively a normative concept. It examines how biases in the measurement of polycentricity in the ESPON 1.1.1 report are related to this normative approach. Our empirical findings doesn't suggest any clear correlation between more polycentricity and more economic efficiency or even more spatial equity. The paper examines the reasons of the EU tenacity to promote polycentrism. This concept seems to be the result of a political compromise and a strange hybrid between two competing approaches for the future of the European space.

International audience ; EU planning documents enhance the values of polycentrism, as a tool to promote a more efficient, equitable and sustainable development. This paper highlights how and suggests why a descriptive approach of the European urban system became progressively a normative concept. It examines how biases in the measurement of polycentricity in the ESPON 1.1.1 report are related to this normative approach. Our empirical findings doesn't suggest any clear correlation between more polycentricity and more economic efficiency or even more spatial equity. The paper examines the reasons of the EU tenacity to promote polycentrism. This concept seems to be the result of a political compromise and a strange hybrid between two competing approaches for the future of the European space.

International audience ; EU planning documents enhance the values of polycentrism, as a tool to promote a more efficient, equitable and sustainable development. This paper highlights how and suggests why a descriptive approach of the European urban system became progressively a normative concept. It examines how biases in the measurement of polycentricity in the ESPON 1.1.1 report are related to this normative approach. Our empirical findings doesn't suggest any clear correlation between more polycentricity and more economic efficiency or even more spatial equity. The paper examines the reasons of the EU tenacity to promote polycentrism. This concept seems to be the result of a political compromise and a strange hybrid between two competing approaches for the future of the European space.

EU planning documents enhance the values of polycentrism, as a tool to promote a more efficient, equitable and sustainable development. This paper highlights how and suggests why a descriptive approach of the European urban system became progressively a normative concept. It examines how biases in the measurement of polycentricity in the ESPON 1.1.1 report are related to this normative approach. Our empirical findings doesn't suggest any clear correlation between more polycentricity and more economic efficiency or even more spatial equity. The paper examines the reasons of the EU tenacity to promote polycentrism. This concept seems to be the result of a political compromise and a strange hybrid between two competing approaches for the future of the European space.

International audience ; Health-care workers in emergency departments are frequently exposed to risk of antisocial behavior and violence (ABV) by users. Underreporting of ABV by health-care professionals has been identified. In order to understand this phenomenon, we explored the experience of ABV in 30 health workers in an ophthalmology emergency department in the Rhône-Alpes administrative region of France. Methods: A grounded theory qualitative approach was followed. Data were collected from field observations, 30 semistructured individual interviews, violence report forms, and 364 patient satisfaction questionnaires. Qualitative thematic content analysis of the interviews was performed with qualitative data analysis software. Results: Third-party antisocial behaviors and violence were an everyday occurrence, with varying levels of seriousness: impoliteness, vulgarity, nonrecognition, insults, verbal threats, and aggressive gestures. Health-care workers adopted various strategies to adapt to such violence: proactive and reactive attitudes and the political and economic context, hospital work organization, and health workers' behavior were identified as potentially contributing to ABV. Excessive waiting times, lack of user information, and understaffing emerged as factors contributing to users' ABV. Conclusions: Antisocial behaviors by hospital users are underreported by professionals and under-recognized. They appear to be like continuous occupational exposure leading to delayed adverse consequences either on workers' health or motivation. However, violence in hospitals is not the result of only the action of users, and it may be related to work organization and workers' own behaviors. Only a grounded analysis of the causes of violence in the local work context can uncover relevant solutions.

International audience ; Health-care workers in emergency departments are frequently exposed to risk of antisocial behavior and violence (ABV) by users. Underreporting of ABV by health-care professionals has been identified. In order to understand this phenomenon, we explored the experience of ABV in 30 health workers in an ophthalmology emergency department in the Rhône-Alpes administrative region of France. Methods: A grounded theory qualitative approach was followed. Data were collected from field observations, 30 semistructured individual interviews, violence report forms, and 364 patient satisfaction questionnaires. Qualitative thematic content analysis of the interviews was performed with qualitative data analysis software. Results: Third-party antisocial behaviors and violence were an everyday occurrence, with varying levels of seriousness: impoliteness, vulgarity, nonrecognition, insults, verbal threats, and aggressive gestures. Health-care workers adopted various strategies to adapt to such violence: proactive and reactive attitudes and the political and economic context, hospital work organization, and health workers' behavior were identified as potentially contributing to ABV. Excessive waiting times, lack of user information, and understaffing emerged as factors contributing to users' ABV. Conclusions: Antisocial behaviors by hospital users are underreported by professionals and under-recognized. They appear to be like continuous occupational exposure leading to delayed adverse consequences either on workers' health or motivation. However, violence in hospitals is not the result of only the action of users, and it may be related to work organization and workers' own behaviors. Only a grounded analysis of the causes of violence in the local work context can uncover relevant solutions.

International audience ; Health-care workers in emergency departments are frequently exposed to risk of antisocial behavior and violence (ABV) by users. Underreporting of ABV by health-care professionals has been identified. In order to understand this phenomenon, we explored the experience of ABV in 30 health workers in an ophthalmology emergency department in the Rhône-Alpes administrative region of France. Methods: A grounded theory qualitative approach was followed. Data were collected from field observations, 30 semistructured individual interviews, violence report forms, and 364 patient satisfaction questionnaires. Qualitative thematic content analysis of the interviews was performed with qualitative data analysis software. Results: Third-party antisocial behaviors and violence were an everyday occurrence, with varying levels of seriousness: impoliteness, vulgarity, nonrecognition, insults, verbal threats, and aggressive gestures. Health-care workers adopted various strategies to adapt to such violence: proactive and reactive attitudes and the political and economic context, hospital work organization, and health workers' behavior were identified as potentially contributing to ABV. Excessive waiting times, lack of user information, and understaffing emerged as factors contributing to users' ABV. Conclusions: Antisocial behaviors by hospital users are underreported by professionals and under-recognized. They appear to be like continuous occupational exposure leading to delayed adverse consequences either on workers' health or motivation. However, violence in hospitals is not the result of only the action of users, and it may be related to work organization and workers' own behaviors. Only a grounded analysis of the causes of violence in the local work context can uncover relevant solutions.