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AbstractMaternal education plays a central role in children's health and nutrition. Living conditions and socioeconomic status are linked with mother's education, which in turn determines the health and development of a child. The Composite Index of Anthropometric Failure (CIAF) is a single indicator that reflects overall rate of three conventional indices of undernutrition: underweight, stunting and wasting. The study was undertaken among 621 rural Bengalee children (308 boys and 313 girls) aged 3–12 years from the Purba Medinipur district of West Bengal, India. Height (cm) and weight (kg) were recorded and NCHS standard values used to calculate z-scores (<–2SD). The same data were used to calculate CIAF as an indicator of 'anthropometric failure' (AF) or undernutrition. The prevalence of AF among the children was 59.40%. Chi-squared analysis was employed to evaluate the significance of differences in the prevalence of CIAF between the sexes and the association between nutritional indicators and socioeconomic parameters in the two sexes. Multiple binary logistic regression (MBLR) analyses (including the forward stepwise method) were also performed. Odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals were used to assess the risk of having AF. Results showed that mother's education was significantly associated with undernutrition (AF) controlling for the other factors considered. A very high prevalence of undernutrition is persisting in this region of India despite national nutritional supplementation programmes being operational. More attention to the improvement of living conditions and hygiene, and more particularly the education of women, in this population might be effective in attaining improved child growth and health.

SummaryThe ratio of second-to-fourth digit length (2D:4D), which is generally higher in women compared with men, is a putative marker of prenatal testosterone (PT) exposure. Lower 2D:4D is linked with greater physical ability and strength, better sporting performance and a propensity towards jobs demanding greater physical ability. The objectives of this paper were to examine the sexual dimorphism in 2D:4D in both hands 1and compare this dimorphism in the students of military and civil courses at the General Kuściuszko Military Academy of Land Forces in Wrocław. The cross-sectional study compared 59 female and 118 male students from the military courses and 53 females and 64 male students from the civil courses. Besides calculating 2D:4D (2D/4D) for each hand, height and weight were also recorded. Physical fitness and endurance were assessed using Eurofit tests. Handgrip strength was measured using a standardized isometric dynamometer. In almost all physical tests, students in the military cohort showed highly significant greater physical ability and strength (e.g. handgrip strength) when compared with the civil cohort. Male participants had a significantly lower 2D:4D than females for each hand, as well as for the average value for both hands. The sexual dimorphism was, however, a little more pronounced in the right hand than in the left. Both sex and course type were significant predictors of 2D:4D. There were significant interactions between sex and the student type. Among females, but not in males, the military cohort had a significantly lower, i.e. more 'masculine', 2D:4D for the left hand and right hand and average for both hands (t=3.290, p<0.001) than the civil cohort. This was not the case in males. However, the sex difference in 2D:4D was only significant among the civil students, and not among the military cadets. In conclusion, higher PT exposure, as represented by a lower 2D:4D, among the Polish females might be an indicator of relatively increased physical ability and motivation to choose professions that require higher strength and endurance.

The 2nd to 4th digit ratio (2D:4D) is a sexually dimorphic trait determined by the relative balance of prenatal testosterone (T) and oestrogen during the intrauterine development of foetus. Males on average have relatively lower 2D:4D than women in population. Lower 2D:4D is very often linked with greater physical ability, strength, superior sporting performance and many personality traits and behaviours which are seen more among the males. Recently, lower 2D:4D were associated with military and police services among the Polish women. The objectives of this study were to examine whether 2D:4D differed between the students of a study course for future military service and a civil study course and whether sex difference in this ratio is present in both these groups. The cross sectional study included 50 boys and 42 girls enrolled in the uniformed course and other 56 boys and 50 girls of a general course in an upper-secondary School. The lengths of the second (2D) and fourth fingers (4D) of each hand were measured to have the 2D:4D ratio. Height and weight were also recorded. Overall, as well as among the civil course students, males showed significantly lower mean 2D:4D compared to the females. But there was no significant sex difference in digit ratio among the uniformed course students. Besides, the females under uniformed course showed lower 2D:4D than the females in civil course, whereas, the male uniformed students had similar or almost same 2D:4D values with the male civil course students. Increased prenatal testosterone exposure might have a role in determining the choice towards a challenging future occupation and such effect is perhaps more pronounced in women than in males.

There is sex-difference in humans as regards aerobic efficiency, physical strength and endurance and the sex difference is greatly dependent upon differential concentration of testosterone during different phases of growth and development including the intrauterine phase or prenatal growth. Second-to-fourth digit lengths ratio (2D:4D) is an putative indicator of prenatal testosterone exposure. Lower 2D:4D indicates higher prenatal testosterone exposure and vice versa. Males generally have lower 2D:4D than females. This cross-sectional study investigated the relationship between the fitness measures and 2D:4D in young adult Polish males. The study included 118 Polish male students first course in General Kościuszko Military Academy of Land Forces in Wroclaw. Their mean (+SD) age was 20.4 (+1.60) years. Eurofit test set was employed to assess physical fitness. Apart from height, weight, second and fourth digit lengths, hand grip strength was also measured by a standard isometric dynamometer. The study showed a weak relationship between 2D:4D of right hand and results of physical fitness tests. The smaller was the 2D:4D, the better was the result of endurance and strength tests. This finding was in accord with reports by other studies, indicating that individuals with smaller 2D:4D tend to perform better in these aspects of physical ability. However, we also found an opposite relationship with the results to agility tests. Male students with higher 2D:4D scored better in 5x10 meters shuttle run. This finding did not match with results reported by other studies. This study indicated towards possibility that an association between low 2D:4D and sport and athletic achievement and also physical performances were due to, at least in part, the action of prenatal testosterone. Further studies are required to investigate the relationship of fitness parameters with digit ratio and ultimately with prenatal testosterone exposure.

SummaryHumans exhibit sex differences in competitiveness, sensation seeking and risk-taking attitude, which are required in sports. These attributes are often linked to prenatal testosterone (PT) exposure. The second-to-fourth digit length ratio (2D:4D) is an indicator of PT exposure. A lower 2D:4D indicates higher PT exposure and vice versa. Males generally have a lower 2D:4D than females. Sensation- and/or thrill-seeking behaviours have also been found to be negatively associated with 2D:4D. Boxing and judo are considered to be high-risk sports. Voluntary participation in judo/boxing in contrast to aerobics can be guided by such behaviours and thus have an association with lower 2D:4D. This cross-sectional study included 167 female students from a military academy in Wrocław, Poland. Of them, 119 had voluntarily chosen aerobic exercise, and 48 opted for judo/boxing. Height, weight and second and fourth digit lengths were measured. Physical fitness was assessed using Eurofit tests. The two groups showed similar physical fitness and body size. However, the judo/boxing group had significantly lower mean 2D:4D values than the aerobics group. It is proposed that voluntary choice of participation in a sport discipline by women could be linked to the 'organizational' effect of intrauterine testosterone exposure during prenatal growth.

SummaryMales and females differ in their preference for occupations and sporting activities, and differ also in risk-taking attitudes. In addition to other explanations, prenatal hormone exposure has been implicated in these gender-associated differences. The ratio of the relative lengths of the second-to-fourth digits (2D:4D) is a proxy indicator of prenatal exposure to testosterone relative to oestrogen. The 2D:4D ratio has been found to be associated with choice of occupation, particularly among females. This study investigated whether 2D:4D differed between police officers and a control group of civilians in Wrocław, Poland. Participants were 147 male and 55 female police officers and 91 male and 75 female civilian controls. The police officers had to undergo rigorous physical ability tests during recruitment and their job bore relatively higher risk, whereas the controls had a normal civilian lifestyle. Height, weight, hand grip strength and lengths of the second and fourth digits were measured. Analyses of variance and covariance were employed to assess the significance of difference in digit ratio between groups (police officers and civilians) allowing for interaction with sex. The policewomen, compared with the female controls, were taller and had stronger hand grip strength, but had lower 2D:4D in the right hand and average 2D:4D of both hands. However, male and female police officers slightly differed only in the right hand digit ratio but not in the left hand ratio or the average for the two hands. However, the control group showed significant sex differences in all digit ratios with higher (feminine) mean values in females. The study provides further evidence that prenatal testosterone exposure, as reflected in the 2D:4D ratio, might have an association with choice of occupation, particularly among females.