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"Whether the federal government could play any role in the development of infrastructure was a controversial issue in the early republic. Spending on roads and harbors was not one of the enumerated powers; therefore many argued such projects were left to the states. Demand for better transportation increased as the country grew, which put pressure on the federal government to become involved in the development of national infrastructure. Roads and harbors were the first projects the federal government supported. As railroads developed they also became objects of federal interest. This book tells a story about the development of the American state through the demand for support of railroads. Growing demand for national rail networks combined with the failure of many state initiatives put pressure on the federal government to act. This is a story of the development of the state from ground up"--

Analytical technologies that structure and process data hold great promise for organizations but also may pose fundamental challenges for how knowledge workers accomplish tasks. Knowledge workers are generally considered experts who develop deep understanding of their tools, but recent observations suggest that in some situations, they may black box their analytical technologies, meaning they trust their tools without understanding how they work. I conducted a two-year inductive ethnographic study of the use of analytical technologies across four groups in an investment bank and found two distinct paths that these groups used to validate financial analyses through what I call "validating practices": actions that confirm whether a produced analysis is trustworthy. Surprisingly, engaging in these practices does not necessarily equate to understanding the calculations performed by the technologies. In one path, validating practices are partitioned across junior and senior roles: junior bankers engage in assembling tasks and use the analytical tools to perform analysis, while only senior bankers interpret the analysis. In the other path, junior and senior members engage in co-construction: junior bankers do both assembling and interpreting tasks, and senior bankers engage in interpreting and provide feedback on junior bankers' reasoning and choices. Both junior and senior bankers in the partitioning groups routinely black boxed the algorithms embedded in their technologies, taking them for granted without understanding them. By contrast, bankers in the co-construction groups were conscious of the algorithms and understood their potential impact. I found that black boxing influenced the knowledge outputs of these bankers and constrained the development of junior members' expertise, with consequences for their career trajectories.

Despite Female genital mutilation (FGM) being a violation of human rights against girls and women, it has persisted for several centuries. Therefore, this study sought to find out the milestones covered towards its eradication. FGM entails the partial or total removal of external female genitalia or other injuries to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons. It does not only harm women physically, but also harms their emotional health with far reaching effects throughout their lives. The study was conducted in the greater Kisii (Kisii and Nyamira counties) utilising 252 participants and employed a mixed research design. Data were collected using questionnaires, and structured interview schedules. The study concluded that despite its persistence, FGM has generally shown a painfully low declining prevalence. In the greater Kisii and indeed elsewhere, the situation is complicated by studies employing outdated data. Also, the study found that eradication of FGM is possible through the use of a combination of multi-community level interventions and national legislative mechanisms. In addition, increased education and awareness as well as driving the process through community approaches can increase effectiveness. This is because education is a salient prime mover for behaviour change. This study suggests that developing an Alternative Rite of Passage (ARP) may be an easier way to eradicate FGM. In conclusion, ending FGM is a tricky matter that is intertwined and embedded in culture. However, the fact that most girls have not undergone FGM is a clear indication that FGM is headed towards its end.

Competence-based education in Kenya has evolved over the recent time and is being implemented in the whole of Kenya and is already in grade 4. It is rooted in the philosophy of education and the need for practical education, competence-based education. The aim of this paper is to review the challenges teachers face in implementing CBC in Kenyan schools. Data and past findings were gathered from several articles by researchers to determine the central idea of the rationality of this paper. As evidence, an empirical result was provided to ensure the information might be beneficial into this significant finding that associated with government's provision towards schools so as to achieve successful implementation of CBC. Thus, this review also highlighted challenges and constraints on teacher preparedness in implementation of the Competency Based Curriculum (CBC) in Kenyan schools. This gap is to illustrate how the constraints can be breached in order to influence directly the implementers contribution, benefit and where and when to mitigate the challenges that hinder the smooth implementation of the new curriculum in Kenya. In this review the paper brings a challenge and contribution among stakeholders involved in the implementation process to work diligently to close the gap that clearly evident. Key words: CBC, competencies, perceptions, staffing, communication, teacher

In this essay, President Donald Trump's policies are evaluated in terms of their impact on American federalism. Rather than producing an era of significant devolution, the paper argues that the Trump administration will primarily result in very typical policy changes to American federalism. In particular, the Trump administration will redirect state resources away from policy areas that undercut Trump's political agenda while placing more support behind programs that advance the president's agenda. The one significant change that the Trump administration could bring about is an even greater centralization of political power in the executive, perhaps to a degree that undermines the traditional checks and balances of American federalism.

Electronic health records and the Internet will continue to transform how information is accessed and shared. Users of health data such as health professionals, governments, policymakers, researchers and patients themselves need to be able to access the right information at the right time and be confident in the quality of that information, whether personal, aggregated or knowledge based. It is essential to evaluate information systems and applications that claim to improve information quality and access in order to provide evidence that they support healthcare delivery and improve patient outcomes.