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For decades, mobility between the Sahel and northern Africa was mostly irregular, but not clandestine. Most of the border crossings were supervised and (illegally) taxed by border police; everyone knew who did what with whom, and Saharan drivers were not thought of as smugglers of people. Starting in the early 2000s, European countries intervened, considering all trans-Saharan movements as a first step on a journey toward Europe, thus encouraging national authorities to stop them. This led to the tightening of border controls across northwest Africa. This article shows how the resulting criminalization of travel to and through the Sahara has led to the development of specialized passenger transport as a clandestine activity, resulting in an increase in the human and financial costs of those journeys. Thus, smugglers, as a particular category of actors, appear as directly manufactured by the migration policies that were drafted to control them.

Nel Sahara, i migranti africani lungo la loro strada per la Libia o l'Europa sviluppano una forma specifica di territorialitŕ basata sulla paura della "diversitŕ" e dell'"esterioritŕ" dell'ambiente geografico che transitano. Le costruzioni territoriali che sono il risultato di questo contribuiscono alla trasformazione del modo in cui tali spazi di transito funzionano cosě come alle attivitŕ che hanno luogo in queste oasi e le infrastrutture che emergono come risposta al crescente traffico trans-sahariano. L'analisi della territorialitŕ e della socialitŕ dei migranti durante il loro arrivo e permanenza in Agadez e durante il loro passaggio successivo attraverso l'Erg del Ténéré permette di studiare come i flussi migratori che passano attraverso il Sahara lasciano la loro imprint socio-spaziale su queste oasi di transito.

Since the early 1990's there has been a significant migration of people, from various cultures and countries, streaming across Niger's Sahara desert, consequently "transforming" it. To spite the restricting, often hindering polices imposed by the Maghreb States, which does lessen what would be an even greater migration, people continue arriving and departing. Travelers from all parts of the continent, regardless of difficulties, both physical and political in nature, migrate to North Africa for few months or few years. These migrations flowing in and out of the desert region surrounding Agadez are the main dynamic that transforms the area. Besides forging a new Saharan geography, they also connect various cultures creating a diversity that is the very essence of cosmopolitanism. The study of these migrations and the desert routes they utilize reveals how it effects the travelers themselves and their relationship to each other, as well as the geography of the region. It is a process of change that occurs also during the journey as much as upon destination. In the context of identical tension and the refusal of otherness, the constant migratory flow of these travelers in Niger's region around Agadez, is a dynamic of globalization "from the bottom", yet renders the place cosmopolitan. ; Depuis le début des années 1990, d'importants flux migratoires traversent et « transforment » le Sahara nigérien. En dépit des obstacles qui entravent la circulation dans cette région, reflets des dysfonctionnements de l'État nigérien et du durcissement des politiques migratoires des États maghrébins, des migrants originaires de toute une partie du continent se rendent par cette voie en Afrique du Nord, d'où la plupart reviennent après quelques mois ou quelques années. Les migrations transsahariennes constituent ainsi le principal facteur de dynamisme et de transformation de la région d'Agadez. Elles tendent à redéfinir une nouvelle géographie saharienne, en mettant en contact des lieux et des acteurs de façon inédite, en ...

Since the early 1990's there has been a significant migration of people, from various cultures and countries, streaming across Niger's Sahara desert, consequently "transforming" it. To spite the restricting, often hindering polices imposed by the Maghreb States, which does lessen what would be an even greater migration, people continue arriving and departing. Travelers from all parts of the continent, regardless of difficulties, both physical and political in nature, migrate to North Africa for few months or few years. These migrations flowing in and out of the desert region surrounding Agadez are the main dynamic that transforms the area. Besides forging a new Saharan geography, they also connect various cultures creating a diversity that is the very essence of cosmopolitanism. The study of these migrations and the desert routes they utilize reveals how it effects the travelers themselves and their relationship to each other, as well as the geography of the region. It is a process of change that occurs also during the journey as much as upon destination. In the context of identical tension and the refusal of otherness, the constant migratory flow of these travelers in Niger's region around Agadez, is a dynamic of globalization "from the bottom", yet renders the place cosmopolitan. ; Depuis le début des années 1990, d'importants flux migratoires traversent et « transforment » le Sahara nigérien. En dépit des obstacles qui entravent la circulation dans cette région, reflets des dysfonctionnements de l'État nigérien et du durcissement des politiques migratoires des États maghrébins, des migrants originaires de toute une partie du continent se rendent par cette voie en Afrique du Nord, d'où la plupart reviennent après quelques mois ou quelques années. Les migrations transsahariennes constituent ainsi le principal facteur de dynamisme et de transformation de la région d'Agadez. Elles tendent à redéfinir une nouvelle géographie saharienne, en mettant en contact des lieux et des acteurs de façon inédite, en ...

Since the early 1990's there has been a significant migration of people, from various cultures and countries, streaming across Niger's Sahara desert, consequently "transforming" it. To spite the restricting, often hindering polices imposed by the Maghreb States, which does lessen what would be an even greater migration, people continue arriving and departing. Travelers from all parts of the continent, regardless of difficulties, both physical and political in nature, migrate to North Africa for few months or few years. These migrations flowing in and out of the desert region surrounding Agadez are the main dynamic that transforms the area. Besides forging a new Saharan geography, they also connect various cultures creating a diversity that is the very essence of cosmopolitanism. The study of these migrations and the desert routes they utilize reveals how it effects the travelers themselves and their relationship to each other, as well as the geography of the region. It is a process of change that occurs also during the journey as much as upon destination. In the context of identical tension and the refusal of otherness, the constant migratory flow of these travelers in Niger's region around Agadez, is a dynamic of globalization "from the bottom", yet renders the place cosmopolitan. ; Depuis le début des années 1990, d'importants flux migratoires traversent et « transforment » le Sahara nigérien. En dépit des obstacles qui entravent la circulation dans cette région, reflets des dysfonctionnements de l'État nigérien et du durcissement des politiques migratoires des États maghrébins, des migrants originaires de toute une partie du continent se rendent par cette voie en Afrique du Nord, d'où la plupart reviennent après quelques mois ou quelques années. Les migrations transsahariennes constituent ainsi le principal facteur de dynamisme et de transformation de la région d'Agadez. Elles tendent à redéfinir une nouvelle géographie saharienne, en mettant en contact des lieux et des acteurs de façon inédite, en ...

Since the early 1990's there has been a significant migration of people, from various cultures and countries, streaming across Niger's Sahara desert, consequently "transforming" it. To spite the restricting, often hindering polices imposed by the Maghreb States, which does lessen what would be an even greater migration, people continue arriving and departing. Travelers from all parts of the continent, regardless of difficulties, both physical and political in nature, migrate to North Africa for few months or few years. These migrations flowing in and out of the desert region surrounding Agadez are the main dynamic that transforms the area. Besides forging a new Saharan geography, they also connect various cultures creating a diversity that is the very essence of cosmopolitanism. The study of these migrations and the desert routes they utilize reveals how it effects the travelers themselves and their relationship to each other, as well as the geography of the region. It is a process of change that occurs also during the journey as much as upon destination. In the context of identical tension and the refusal of otherness, the constant migratory flow of these travelers in Niger's region around Agadez, is a dynamic of globalization "from the bottom", yet renders the place cosmopolitan. ; Depuis le début des années 1990, d'importants flux migratoires traversent et « transforment » le Sahara nigérien. En dépit des obstacles qui entravent la circulation dans cette région, reflets des dysfonctionnements de l'État nigérien et du durcissement des politiques migratoires des États maghrébins, des migrants originaires de toute une partie du continent se rendent par cette voie en Afrique du Nord, d'où la plupart reviennent après quelques mois ou quelques années. Les migrations transsahariennes constituent ainsi le principal facteur de dynamisme et de transformation de la région d'Agadez. Elles tendent à redéfinir une nouvelle géographie saharienne, en mettant en contact des lieux et des acteurs de façon inédite, en ...

Since the early 1990's there has been a significant migration of people, from various cultures and countries, streaming across Niger's Sahara desert, consequently "transforming" it. To spite the restricting, often hindering polices imposed by the Maghreb States, which does lessen what would be an even greater migration, people continue arriving and departing. Travelers from all parts of the continent, regardless of difficulties, both physical and political in nature, migrate to North Africa for few months or few years. These migrations flowing in and out of the desert region surrounding Agadez are the main dynamic that transforms the area. Besides forging a new Saharan geography, they also connect various cultures creating a diversity that is the very essence of cosmopolitanism. The study of these migrations and the desert routes they utilize reveals how it effects the travelers themselves and their relationship to each other, as well as the geography of the region. It is a process of change that occurs also during the journey as much as upon destination. In the context of identical tension and the refusal of otherness, the constant migratory flow of these travelers in Niger's region around Agadez, is a dynamic of globalization "from the bottom", yet renders the place cosmopolitan. ; Depuis le début des années 1990, d'importants flux migratoires traversent et « transforment » le Sahara nigérien. En dépit des obstacles qui entravent la circulation dans cette région, reflets des dysfonctionnements de l'État nigérien et du durcissement des politiques migratoires des États maghrébins, des migrants originaires de toute une partie du continent se rendent par cette voie en Afrique du Nord, d'où la plupart reviennent après quelques mois ou quelques années. Les migrations transsahariennes constituent ainsi le principal facteur de dynamisme et de transformation de la région d'Agadez. Elles tendent à redéfinir une nouvelle géographie saharienne, en mettant en contact des lieux et des acteurs de façon inédite, en ...

Since the early 1990's there has been a significant migration of people, from various cultures and countries, streaming across Niger's Sahara desert, consequently "transforming" it. To spite the restricting, often hindering polices imposed by the Maghreb States, which does lessen what would be an even greater migration, people continue arriving and departing. Travelers from all parts of the continent, regardless of difficulties, both physical and political in nature, migrate to North Africa for few months or few years. These migrations flowing in and out of the desert region surrounding Agadez are the main dynamic that transforms the area. Besides forging a new Saharan geography, they also connect various cultures creating a diversity that is the very essence of cosmopolitanism. The study of these migrations and the desert routes they utilize reveals how it effects the travelers themselves and their relationship to each other, as well as the geography of the region. It is a process of change that occurs also during the journey as much as upon destination. In the context of identical tension and the refusal of otherness, the constant migratory flow of these travelers in Niger's region around Agadez, is a dynamic of globalization "from the bottom", yet renders the place cosmopolitan. ; Depuis le début des années 1990, d'importants flux migratoires traversent et « transforment » le Sahara nigérien. En dépit des obstacles qui entravent la circulation dans cette région, reflets des dysfonctionnements de l'État nigérien et du durcissement des politiques migratoires des États maghrébins, des migrants originaires de toute une partie du continent se rendent par cette voie en Afrique du Nord, d'où la plupart reviennent après quelques mois ou quelques années. Les migrations transsahariennes constituent ainsi le principal facteur de dynamisme et de transformation de la région d'Agadez. Elles tendent à redéfinir une nouvelle géographie saharienne, en mettant en contact des lieux et des acteurs de façon inédite, en redéfinissant leurs fonctions et leurs relations selon de nouvelles logiques. L'étude de ces migrations dans les espaces de transit du Sahara nigérien permet de replacer le « mouvement » et ses enjeux au cœur du processus migratoire, et de s'interroger sur les manières dont se redéfinissent les projets et les identités des individus mobiles au cours de leur voyage. Dans un contexte international de crispation identitaire et de rejet de l'altérité, les migrations transsahariennes participent d'une dynamique de mondialisation « par le bas », introduisant localement au Sahara un cosmopolitisme par la marge.

International audience ; Kel Air warlike aristocrats were involved in different ways in both saharian and transaharian caravan exchanges which enabled them to put social, economical and political pressure on several areas and on the people who were living there. This social and geographical control led to the settlement of a group of commercial and political areas and contributed to the organization of those groups. From the second half of the XIX century a lot of disruptive factors appeared and the caravan exchanges began to decline. The relationships in production and trade, the relationships in terms of power, as well as the relations between people and space were drastically changed, leading these populations in a situation of crisis. ; Les aristocrates guerriers (imajeghen) Kel Aïr étaient impliqués de diverses manières dans les échanges caravaniers sahariens et transsahariens, ce qui leur permettaient d'exercer une domination politique, économique et sociale sur un certain nombre d'espaces et sur les populations qui y vivaient. Ce contrôle socio-spatial concourrait à définir un ensemble de territoires politiques et marchands, et participait de l'organisation des groupes. A partir de la seconde moitié du XIXème siècle, un ensemble de facteurs a perturbé la tenue de ce négoce caravanier, amorçant son déclin. Les rapports sociaux de production et d'échange, les rapports de domination, ainsi que les rapports des populations à l'espace ont pour une bonne part été bouleversés. Ce sont donc les structures qui permettaient la reproduction sociale et matérielle des groupes Kel Aïr qui ont été modifiées, entraînant ces populations dans une situation de crise.

International audience ; Kel Air warlike aristocrats were involved in different ways in both saharian and transaharian caravan exchanges which enabled them to put social, economical and political pressure on several areas and on the people who were living there. This social and geographical control led to the settlement of a group of commercial and political areas and contributed to the organization of those groups. From the second half of the XIX century a lot of disruptive factors appeared and the caravan exchanges began to decline. The relationships in production and trade, the relationships in terms of power, as well as the relations between people and space were drastically changed, leading these populations in a situation of crisis. ; Les aristocrates guerriers (imajeghen) Kel Aïr étaient impliqués de diverses manières dans les échanges caravaniers sahariens et transsahariens, ce qui leur permettaient d'exercer une domination politique, économique et sociale sur un certain nombre d'espaces et sur les populations qui y vivaient. Ce contrôle socio-spatial concourrait à définir un ensemble de territoires politiques et marchands, et participait de l'organisation des groupes. A partir de la seconde moitié du XIXème siècle, un ensemble de facteurs a perturbé la tenue de ce négoce caravanier, amorçant son déclin. Les rapports sociaux de production et d'échange, les rapports de domination, ainsi que les rapports des populations à l'espace ont pour une bonne part été bouleversés. Ce sont donc les structures qui permettaient la reproduction sociale et matérielle des groupes Kel Aïr qui ont été modifiées, entraînant ces populations dans une situation de crise.