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Despite the growing interest in Ecosystem-based Adaptation, there has been little discussion of how this approach could be used to help smallholder farmers adapt to climate change, while ensuring the continued provision of ecosystem services on which farming depends. Here we provide a framework for identifying which agricultural practices could be considered 'Ecosystem-based Adaptation' practices, and highlight the opportunities and constraints for using these practices to help smallholder farmers adapt to climate change. We argue that these practices are (a) based on the conservation, restoration or management of biodiversity, ecosystem processes or services, and (b) improve the ability of crops and livestock to maintain crop yields under climate change and/or by buffering biophysical impacts of extreme weather events or increased temperatures. To be appropriate for smallholder farmers, these practices must also help increase their food security, increase or diversify their sources of income generation, take advantage of local or traditional knowledge, be based on local inputs, and have low implementation and labor costs. To illustrate the application of this definition, we provide some examples from smallholders' coffee management practices in Mesoamerica. We also highlight three key obstacles that currently constrain the use of Ecosystem-based Adaptation practices (i) the need for greater understanding of their effectiveness and the factors that drive their adoption, (ii) the development supportive and integrated agriculture and climate change policies that specifically promote them as part of a broader agricultural adaptation program; and (iii) the establishment and maintaining strong and innovative extension programs for smallholder farmers. Our framework is an important starting point for identifying which Ecosystem-based Adaptation practices are appropriate for smallholder farmers and merit attention in international and national adaptation efforts.

It is increasingly recognized that climate change will have a disproportionate impact on smallholder farmers, due to their dependence on agriculture for both livelihoods and food security, their often high levels of poverty, location in remote areas and marginal lands, and lack of access to technical support and credit. Consequently, across the world, governments are developing strong adaptation policies and plans to help smallholder farmers adapt to the increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events and other aspects of climate change. One approach that holds great promise for smallholder farmers is the use of ecosystem-based adaptation- the use of ecosystem services and biodiversity as part of an overall adaptation strategy to help people adapt to the adverse effects of climate change. However, to date, there is little information available on what EbA options are available and feasible for farmers, how effective these are in reducing farmer vulnerability to extreme weather events and climate change, and what the opportunities and constraints are for scaling up these approaches. Using information from a detailed literature review, expert interviews, and a policy review, we will present an overview of the different types of ecosystem-based adaptation measures that are appropriate for smallholder coffee and maize/bean farmers in Central America, examine how effective these approaches are for reducing farmer vulnerability to extreme weather events, and discuss key technical, policy and financial constraints to broad scale adoption. Our study highlights the importance of systematically including Ecosystem-based adaptation in ongoing climate change policies, national adaptation plans and associated resource allocations, and the need for greater understanding of the specific mechanisms by which EbA practices deliver the ecosystem services on which people depend. (Texte intégral)

In many regions, climate change is having significant adverse impacts on the agricultural production and livelihoods of smallholder farmers, with important consequences for global food security. Helping smallholder farmers adapt to climate change has therefore become a priority for many of donors and governments. Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA, defined as the use of ecosystem services and biodiversity as part of an overall adaptation strategy to help people adapt to the effects of climate change) is one approach that could help smallholder farmers, yet there is still limited knowledge on whether EbA can meet the adaptation needs of smallholder farmers. Here, we provide an overview of what EbA means in the context of smallholder agricultural production. Drawing on expert surveys, field work and household surveys of smallholder coffee and subsistence farmers in Central America, we provide examples of EbA strategies that are suitable for smallholder farmers, characterize how farmers are implementing these strategies, and provide insights into the perceived advantages and drawbacks of different practices for reducing farmer vulnerability. Our study highlights that many agricultural practices that smallholder farmers already use (e.g., agroforestry systems, soil conservation practices, live fences) can be considered EbA, as they are based on the management of biodiversity and ecosystem services and t help and enhance the resilience of agricultural systems. Most smallholder farmers are aware of the relative benefits of EbA practices, but also acknowledge important constraints, such as the cost of setting up the practices and maintenance, andlimited financial, technical and political support. Scaling up the use of EbA through targeted government policies, extension services and farmer programs could not only help smallholder farmers adapt to climate change, but also ensure healthy, sustainable agroecosystems that sustain local livelihoods.

In many regions, climate change is having significant adverse impacts on the agricultural production and livelihoods of smallholder farmers, with important consequences for global food security. Helping smallholder farmers adapt to climate change has therefore become a priority for many of donors and governments. Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA, de!ned as the use of ecosystem services and biodiversity as part of an overall adaptation strategy to help people adapt to the effects of climate change) is one approach that could help smallholder farmers, yet there is still limited knowledge on whether EbA can meet the adaptation needs of smallholder farmers. Here, we provide an overview of what EbA means in the context of smallholder agricultural production. Drawing on expert surveys, !eld work and household surveys of smallholder co"ee and subsistence farmers in Central America, we provide examples of EbA strategies that are suitable for smallholder farmers, characterize how farmers are implementing these strategies, and provide insights into the perceived advantages and drawbacks of different practices for reducing farmer vulnerability. Our study highlights that many agricultural practices that smallholder farmers already use (e.g., agroforestry systems, soil conservation practices, live fences) can be considered EbA, as they are based on the management of biodiversity and ecosystem services and t help and enhance the resilience of agricultural systems. Most smallholder farmers are aware of the relative benefits of EbA practices, but also acknowledge important constraints, such as the cost of setting up the practices and maintenance, and limited financial, technical and political support. Scaling up the use of EbA through targeted government policies, extension services and farmer programs could not only help smallholder farmers adapt to climate change, but also ensure healthy, sustainable agroecosystems that sustain local livelihoods.