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The following paper investigates the economic determinants of land degradation in developing countries. The main trends examined are rural households' decisions to degrade as opposed to conserve land resources, and the expansion of frontier agricultural activity that contributes to forest and marginal land conversion. These two phenomena appear often to be linked. In many developing areas, a poor rural household's decision whether to undertake long-term investment in improving existing agricultural land must be weighed against the decision to abandon this land and migrate to environmentally fragile areas. Economic factors play a critical role in determining these relationships. Poverty, imperfect capital markets and insecure land tenure may reinforce the tendency towards short-term time horizons in production decisions, and may bias land use decisions against long-term land management strategies. In periods of commodity booms and land speculation, wealthier households generally take advantage of their superior political and market power to ensure initial access to better quality resources, in order to capture a larger share of the resource rents. Poorer households are confined either to marginal environmental areas where resource rents are limited, or only have access to resources once they are degraded and rents dissipated. Overall trends in land degradation and deforestation are examined, followed by an overview of rural households' resource management decisions with respect to land management, frontier agricultural expansion, and migration from existing agricultural land to frontiers. Finally, the discussion focuses on the scope for policy improvements to reduce economic constraints to effective land management.

In this paper, we explore the use of trade policy in addressing transboundary stock pollution problems such as acid rain and water pollution. We show that a tariff determined by the current level of accumulated pollution can induce the time path of emissions optimal for the downstream (polluted) country. But if the upstream (polluting) country can lobby the downstream government to impose lower tariffs, distortions brought by corruption and foreign lobbying lead to a rise in the upstream country's social welfare, and to a decrease in social welfare in the downstream country. Thus, the usefulness of trade policy as a tool for encouraging cooperation and internalizing transboundary externalities depends critically on the degree of governments' susceptibility to foreign political influence.

Efforts to 'operationalize' a concept of sustainability into appraisal methods for practical decisionmaking have been few and generally unpersuasive. In this paper it is argued that this need not be the case if a set of environmentally compensating, or 'shadow', projects within an overall portfolio are used to ensure a sustainability objective of setting a constraint on the depletion and degradation of the stock of natural capital. This can be achieved through both a 'weak' and a 'strong' sustainability criterion. In both cases the resulting optimum differs from the efficient optimum of the conventional cost-benefit criterion, but the basic cost-benefit model remains intact.

Novel species of fungi described in this study include those from various countries as follows: Angola, Gnomoniopsis angolensis and Pseudopithomyces angolensis on unknown host plants. Australia, Dothiora corymbiae on Corymbia citriodora, Neoeucasphaeria eucalypti (incl. Neoeucasphaeria gen. nov.)on Eucalyptus sp., Fumagopsis stellae on Eucalyptus sp., Fusculina eucalyptorum (incl. Fusculinaceae fam. nov.) on Eucalyptus socialis, Harknessia corymbiicola on Corymbia maculata, Neocelosporium eucalypti (incl. Neocelosporium gen. nov., Neocelosporiaceae fam. nov. and Neocelosporiales ord. nov.) on Eucalyptus cyanophylla, Neophaeomoniella corymbiae on Corymbia citriodora, Neophaeomoniella eucalyptigena on Eucalyptus pilularis, Pseudoplagiostoma corymbiicola on Corymbia citriodora, Teratosphaeria gracilis on Eucalyptus gracilis, Zasmidium corymbiae on Corymbia citriodora. Brazil, Calonectria hemileiae on pustules of Hemileia vastatrix formed on leaves of Coffea arabica, Calvatia caatinguensis on soil, Cercospora solani-betacei on Solanum betaceum, Clathrus natalensis on soil, Diaporthe poincianellae on Poincianella pyramidalis, Geastrum piquiriunense on soil, Geosmithia carolliae on wing of Carollia perspicillata, Henningsia resupinata on wood, Penicillium guaibinense from soil, Periconia caespitosa from leaf litter, Pseudocercospora styracina on Styrax sp., Simplicillium filiforme as endophyte from Citrullus lanatus, Thozetella pindobacuensis on leaf litter, Xenosonderhenia coussapoae on Coussapoa floccosa. ; Canary Islands (Spain), Orbilia amarilla on Euphorbia canariensis. Cape Verde Islands, Xylodon jacobaeus on Eucalyptus camaldulensis. Chile, Colletotrichum arboricola on Fuchsia magellanica. Costa Rica, Lasiosphaeria miniovina ontreebranch. Ecuador, Ganoderma chocoense ontreetrunk. France, Neofitzroyomyces nerii (incl. Neofitzroyomyces gen. nov.) on Nerium oleander. Ghana, Castanediella tereticornis on Eucalyptus tereticornis, Falcocladium africanum on Eucalyptus brassiana, Rachicladosporium corymbiae on Corymbia citriodora. Hungary, Entoloma silvae-frondosae in Carpinus betulus-Pinus sylvestris mixedforest. Iran, Pseudopyricularia persiana on Cyperus sp. Italy, Inocybe roseascens onsoilinmixedforest. Laos, Ophiocordyceps houaynhangensis on Coleoptera larva. Malaysia, Monilochaetes melastomae on Melastoma sp. Mexico, Absidia terrestris fromsoil. Netherlands, Acaulium pannemaniae, Conioscypha boutwelliae, Fusicolla septimanifiniscientiae, Gibellulopsis simonii, Lasionectria hilhorstii, Lectera nordwiniana, Leptodiscella rintelii, Parasarocladium debruynii and Sarocladium dejongiae (incl. Sarocladiaceae fam. nov.) fromsoil. New Zealand, Gnomoniopsis rosae on Rosa sp. and Neodevriesia metrosideri on Metrosideros sp. Puerto Rico, Neodevriesia coccolobae on Coccoloba uvifera, Neodevriesia tabebuiae and Alfaria tabebuiae on Tabebuia chrysantha . Russia, Amanita paludosa on bogged soil in mixed deciduous forest, Entoloma tiliae in forest of Tilia × europaea, Kwoniella endophytica on Pyrus communis. ; South Africa, Coniella diospyri on Diospyros mespiliformis, Neomelanconiella combreti (incl. Neomelanconiellaceae fam. nov. and Neomelanconiella gen. nov.)on Combretum sp., Polyphialoseptoria natalensis on unidentified plant host, Pseudorobillarda bolusanthi on Bolusanthus speciosus, Thelonectria pelargonii on Pelargonium sp. Spain, Vermiculariopsiella lauracearum and Anungitopsis lauri on Laurus novocanariensis, Geosmithia xerotolerans from a darkened wall of a house, Pseudopenidiella gallaica on leaf litter. Thailand, Corynespora thailandica on wood, Lareunionomyces loeiensis on leaf litter, Neocochlearomyces chromolaenae (incl. Neocochlearomyces gen. nov.) on Chromolaena odorata, Neomyrmecridium septatum (incl. Neomyrmecridium gen. nov .), Pararamichloridium caricicola on Carex sp., Xenodactylaria thailandica (incl. Xenodactylariaceae fam. nov. and Xenodactylaria gen. nov.), Neomyrmecridium asiaticum and Cymostachys thailandica fromunidentifiedvine. USA, Carolinigaster bonitoi (incl. Carolinigaster gen. nov.)fromsoil, Penicillium fortuitum from house dust, Phaeotheca shathenatiana (incl. Phaeothecaceae fam. nov.) from twig and cone litter, Pythium wohlseniorum from stream water, Superstratomyces tardicrescens from human eye, Talaromyces iowaense from officeair. Vietnam, Fistulinella olivaceoalba onsoil. Morphological and culture characteristics along with DNA barcodes are provided Novel species of fungi described in this study include those from various countries as follows: Angola, Gnomoniopsis angolensis and Pseudopithomyces angolensis on unknown host plants. Australia, Dothiora corymbiae on Corymbia citriodora, Neoeucasphaeria eucalypti (incl. Neoeucasphaeria gen. nov.)on Eucalyptus sp., Fumagopsis stellae on Eucalyptus sp., Fusculina eucalyptorum (incl. Fusculinaceae fam. nov.) on Eucalyptus socialis, Harknessia corymbiicola on Corymbia maculata, Neocelosporium eucalypti (incl. Neocelosporium gen. nov., Neocelosporiaceae fam. nov. and Neocelosporiales ord. nov.) on Eucalyptus cyanophylla, Neophaeomoniella corymbiae on Corymbia citriodora, Neophaeomoniella eucalyptigena on Eucalyptus pilularis, Pseudoplagiostoma corymbiicola on Corymbia citriodora, Teratosphaeria gracilis on Eucalyptus gracilis, Zasmidium corymbiae on Corymbia citriodora. Brazil, Calonectria hemileiae on pustules of Hemileia vastatrix formed on leaves of Coffea arabica, Calvatia caatinguensis on soil, Cercospora solani-betacei on Solanum betaceum, Clathrus natalensis on soil, Diaporthe poincianellae on Poincianella pyramidalis, Geastrum piquiriunense on soil, Geosmithia carolliae on wing of Carollia perspicillata, Henningsia resupinata on wood, Penicillium guaibinense from soil, Periconia caespitosa from leaf litter, Pseudocercospora styracina on Styrax sp., Simplicillium filiforme as endophyte from Citrullus lanatus, Thozetella pindobacuensis on leaf litter, Xenosonderhenia coussapoae on Coussapoa floccosa. ; Canary Islands (Spain), Orbilia amarilla on Euphorbia canariensis. Cape Verde Islands, Xylodon jacobaeus on Eucalyptus camaldulensis. Chile, Colletotrichum arboricola on Fuchsia magellanica. Costa Rica, Lasiosphaeria miniovina ontreebranch. Ecuador, Ganoderma chocoense ontreetrunk. France, Neofitzroyomyces nerii (incl. Neofitzroyomyces gen. nov.) on Nerium oleander. Ghana, Castanediella tereticornis on Eucalyptus tereticornis, Falcocladium africanum on Eucalyptus brassiana, Rachicladosporium corymbiae on Corymbia citriodora. Hungary, Entoloma silvae-frondosae in Carpinus betulus-Pinus sylvestris mixedforest. Iran, Pseudopyricularia persiana on Cyperus sp. Italy, Inocybe roseascens onsoilinmixedforest. Laos, Ophiocordyceps houaynhangensis on Coleoptera larva. Malaysia, Monilochaetes melastomae on Melastoma sp. Mexico, Absidia terrestris fromsoil. Netherlands, Acaulium pannemaniae, Conioscypha boutwelliae, Fusicolla septimanifiniscientiae, Gibellulopsis simonii, Lasionectria hilhorstii, Lectera nordwiniana, Leptodiscella rintelii, Parasarocladium debruynii and Sarocladium dejongiae (incl. Sarocladiaceae fam. nov.) fromsoil. New Zealand, Gnomoniopsis rosae on Rosa sp. and Neodevriesia metrosideri on Metrosideros sp. Puerto Rico, Neodevriesia coccolobae on Coccoloba uvifera, Neodevriesia tabebuiae and Alfaria tabebuiae on Tabebuia chrysantha. ; Russia, Amanita paludosa on bogged soil in mixed deciduous forest, Entoloma tiliae in forest of Tilia × europaea, Kwoniella endophytica on Pyrus communis. South Africa, Coniella diospyri on Diospyros mespiliformis, Neomelanconiella combreti (incl. Neomelanconiellaceae fam. nov. and Neomelanconiella gen. nov.)on Combretum sp., Polyphialoseptoria natalensis on unidentified plant host, Pseudorobillarda bolusanthi on Bolusanthus speciosus, Thelonectria pelargonii on Pelargonium sp. Spain, Vermiculariopsiella lauracearum and Anungitopsis lauri on Laurus novocanariensis, Geosmithia xerotolerans from a darkened wall of a house, Pseudopenidiella gallaica on leaf litter. Thailand, Corynespora thailandica on wood, Lareunionomyces loeiensis on leaf litter, Neocochlearomyces chromolaenae (incl. Neocochlearomyces gen. nov.) on Chromolaena odorata, Neomyrmecridium septatum (incl. Neomyrmecridium gen. nov .), Pararamichloridium caricicola on Carex sp., Xenodactylaria thailandica (incl. Xenodactylariaceae fam. nov. and Xenodactylaria gen. nov.), Neomyrmecridium asiaticum and Cymostachys thailandica fromunidentifiedvine. USA, Carolinigaster bonitoi (incl. Carolinigaster gen. nov.)fromsoil, Penicillium fortuitum from house dust, Phaeotheca shathenatiana (incl. Phaeothecaceae fam. nov.) from twig and cone litter, Pythium wohlseniorum from stream water, Superstratomyces tardicrescens from human eye, Talaromyces iowaense from officeair. Vietnam, Fistulinella olivaceoalba onsoil. Morphological and culture characteristics along with DNA barcodes are provided. ; Tatiana M. Bulyonkova and colleagues are grateful to Dr Rodham Tulloss for his patient guidance and help, and to Dr Torbjørn Borgen Lindhardt for his invaluable advice. Thays G.L. Oliveira, Maria T.C. Felipe, Jadson D.P. Bezerra and Oliane M. C. Magalhães acknowledge financial support and/or scholarships from the CAPES (Finance Code 001), CNPq and FACEPE. Aline O.B. da Cunha, Alexandre R. Machado, Eder Barbier, Enrico Bernard and Cristina M. Souza-Motta acknowledge financial support and/or scholarships from the CAPES (Finance Code 001), CNPq, FACEPE, CECAV and ICMBio from Brazil. Rejane M.F. da Silva and colleagues express their gratitude to the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) for a scholarship to Rejane M.F. da Silva and to the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) for a research fellowships and/or financial support to Gladstone A. da Silva, Cristina M. Souza-Motta, José L. Bezerra and Rafael J.V. de Oliveira (Processes 458622/2014-1 and 312186/2016-9). Olinto L. Pereira, Vanessa P. Abreu, Jackeline P. Andrade and colleagues would like to thank the CNPq, CAPES and FAPEMIG for financial support. The study of Olga V. Morozova was carried out within the framework of a research project of the Komarov Botanical Institute RAS 'Herbarium funds of the BIN RAS' (АААА-А18-118022090078-2) with the support of the molecular work by the Russian Foundation for the Basic Research (project no. 15-29-02622). Anna M. Glushakova and Aleksey V. Kachalkin were supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (RFBR), project no. 16-04-00624a. Janet Jennifer Luangsa-ard and colleagues were supported by 'The Promotion Project on Science, Technology and Innovation Collaboration with ASEAN Member Countries under the Office of International Cooperation, MOSTThailand'. They would also like to thank Ms Duangkaew Chongkachornphong, Ms Papawee Nupason (International Cooperation Section, BIOTEC) and Ms Bakeo Souvannalath (Director of Biotechnology Division, Biotechnology and Ecology Institute, BEI) for their kind cooperation. Javier Fernández-López and colleagues are grateful to Marian Glenn for checking the text, and were supported by DGICT projects CGL2012-35559 and CGL2015-67459-P. ; Javier Fernández-López was also supported by Predoctoral Grants (BES- 2013-066429) from the Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (Spain). Maria E. Ordoñez and colleagues acknowledge Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador for financial support for project M13415. Taimy Cantillo is thankful to PEC-PG/CAPES for the PhD grant (proc. 12636134/2014) (Finance Code 001) and to the International Association for Plant Taxonomy (IAPT) for the Research Grant. Luis F.P. Gusmão is grateful to CNPq for Grant support (Proc. 303062/2014-2). Hugo Madrid was partially funded by Comisión Nacional de Investigación Científica y Tecnológica (CONICYT), Fondo Nacional de Desarrollo Científico y Tecnológico (FONDECYT), Chile, project no. 11140562. Tor Erik Brandrud, Bálint Dima, Machiel E. Noordeloos and Egil Bendiksen thank the financial support of the Norwegian Taxonomy Initiative, with funding from the Norwegian Biodiversity Information Centre (NBIC) ; The Austrian Entoloma material (by Irmgard Krisai-Greilhuber) was sequenced within ABOL, subproject HRSFM University of Vienna, supported by the Austrian Federal Ministry of Education, Science and Research. Adriene M. Soares and colleagues would like to thank the Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade (ICMBio) and the Instituto Brasileiro de Meio Ambiente (IBAMA) for support during field trips and R.L.M. Alvarenga for the figures. They also acknowledge CAPES for the Ph.D. scholarship of Adriene M. Soares, and CNPq (307601/2015-3), CAPES (CAPES-SIU 008/13), and FACEPE (APQ-0375-2.03/15) for financial support. Angus J. Carnegie acknowledges support from the Forestry Corporation of NSW, and David Sargeant for assistance with site photos. Adel Pordel and colleagues thank the University of Tehran for financial support. Luis Quijada acknowledges support from 'Fundación Ramón Areces'. Robert W. Barreto and colleagues thank the World Coffee Research/Texas Agrilife for financial support, as well as the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq), the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES). Sara Salcedo-Sarmiento was supported by the 'Programa de Estudante-Convênio de Pós-Graduação' (PEC-PG) from CAPES. The research of Cobus M. Visagie and Keith A. Seifert was supported by grants from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation Program on the Microbiology of the Built Environment. Blaise A. Darvaux acknowledges Keith A. Seifert for help with identification, Nicholas Mauriello for validating the Latin name, Mauricia Lawrence and Meagan Tillotson for help with material preparation. We are grateful to Gavin Phillips, Seed Bank Officer, Australian Botanic Garden, Mt Annan for field assistance and identification of plant species collected in New South Wales, Australia. Collection of specimens from Mungo National Park was supported by the ABRS Bush Blitz program, a partnership between the Australian Government, BHP and Earthwatch Australia. The National Geographic Okavango Wilderness Project is acknowledged for assistance and funding to J. Roux for material collected in Angola. ; Peer reviewed