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▪ Abstract  To better understand both the shared and special features of human growth, this article explores the evolution of growth patterns of mammals in general and primates in particular. Special attention is paid to several competing hypotheses concerning the adaptive value of the juvenile stage to the life history of the social mammals. One hypothesis claims that all social mammals have a juvenile stage of life, but although most primate species are social, not all primates show a juvenile stage of life history. There is also controversy over whether the adolescent growth spurt is a uniquely human feature. On the basis of empirical observations and evolutionary considerations, I conclude that the human adolescent growth spurt in stature and skeletal maturation is species specific, not found in any other primate species. Finally, data and theory are used to advance a philosophy of human growth. An acceptable philosophy must acknowledge the mammalian and primate foundations for the human pattern of growth. But a robust philosophy of human growth must also account for the ecology to which the human species, indeed any species, is adapted. Accordingly, a philosophy of human growth must allow for the evolution of variations on common themes and of new stages of growth that may be unique to the human species.

This is an Open Access Article. It is published by E Schweizerbart Science Publishers under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International Licence (CC BY-NC). Full details of this licence are available at: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ ; ABSTRACT: Background: We define migrants as people who move from their place of birth to a new place of residence. Migration usually is directed by "Push-Pull" factors, for example to escape from poor living conditions or to find more prosperous socio-economic conditions. Migrant children tend to assimilate quickly, and soon perceive themselves as peers within their new social networks. Differences exist between growth of first generation and second generation migrants. Methods: We review body heights and height distributions of historic and modern migrant populations to test two hypotheses: 1) that migrant and adopted children coming from lower social status localities to higher status localities adjust their height growth toward the mean of the dominant recipient social network, and 2) social dominant colonial and military migrants display growth that significantly surpasses the median height of both the conquered population and the population of origin. Our analytical framework also considered social networks. Recent publications indicate that spatial connectedness (community effects) and social competitiveness can affect human growth. Results: Migrant children and adolescents of lower social status rapidly adjust in height towards average height of their hosts, but tend to mature earlier, and are prone to overweight. The mean height of colonial/military migrants does surpass that of the conquered and origin population. Conclusion: Observations on human social networks, non-human animal strategic growth adjustments, and competitive growth processes strengthen the concept of social connectedness being involved in the regulation of human migrant growth.

It is hypothesized that recent trends in US and worldwide obesity are, in part, related to an increase in the marginal rate of time preference, where time preference refers to the rate at which people are willing to trade current benefit for future benefit. The higher the rate of time preference, the larger is the factor by which individuals discount the future health risks associated with current consumption. Data from the United States, as well as international evidence, suggest that a relationship between these two variables is plausible. The authors encourage researchers to explore the possible link between obesity and time preference, as important insights are likely to result.

This paper is in closed access until 17th June 2020. ; © 2019 The Cochrane Collaboration. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Background Nutritional interventions to prevent stunting of infants and young children are most often applied in rural areas in low-and middle-income countries (LMIC). Few interventions are focused on urban slums. The literature needs a systematic assessment, as infants and children living in slums are at high risk of stunting. Urban slums are complex environments in terms of biological, social, and political variables and the outcomes of nutritional interventions need to be assessed in relation to these variables. For the purposes of this review, we followed the UN-Habitat 2004 definitions for low-income informal settlements or slums as lacking one or more indicators of basic services or infrastructure. Objectives To assess the impact of nutritional interventions to reduce stunting in infants and children under five years old in urban slums from LMIC and the effect of nutritional interventions on other nutritional (wasting and underweight) and non-nutritional outcomes (socioeconomic, health and developmental) in addition to stunting. Search methods The review used a sensitive search strategy of electronic databases, bibliographies of articles, conference proceedings, websites, grey literature, and contact with experts and authors published from 1990. We searched 32 databases, in English and non-English languages (MEDLINE, CENTRAL, Web of Science, Ovid MEDLINE, etc). We performed the initial literature search from November 2015 to January 2016, and conducted top up searches in March 2017 and in August 2018. Selection criteria Research designs included randomised (including cluster-randomised) trials, quasi-randomised trials, non-randomised controlled trials, controlled before-and-after studies, pre-and postintervention, interrupted time series (ITS), and historically controlled studies among infants and children from LMIC, from birth to 59 months, living in urban slums. The interventions included were nutrition-specific or maternal education. The primary outcomes were length or height expressed in cm or length-for-age (LFA)/height-for-age (HFA) z-scores, and birth weight in grams or presence/absence of low birth weight (LBW). Data collection and analysis We screened and then retrieved titles and abstracts as full text if potentially eligible for inclusion. Working independently, one review author screened all titles and abstracts and extracted data on the selected population, intervention, comparison, and outcome parameters and two other authors assessed half each. We calculated mean selection difference (MD) and 95% confidence intervals (CI). We performed intervention-level meta-analyses to estimate pooled measures of effect, or narrative synthesis when meta-analyses were not possible. We used P less than 0.05 to assess statistical significance and intervention outcomes were also considered for their biological/ health importance. Where effect sizes were small and statistically insignificant, we concluded there was 'unclear effect'. Main results The systematic review included 15 studies, of which 14 were randomised controlled trials (RCTs). The interventions took place in recognised slums or poor urban or periurban areas. The study locations were mainly Bangladesh, India, and Peru. The participants included 9261 infants and children and 3664 pregnant women. There were no dietary intervention studies. All the studies identified were nutrient supplementation and educational interventions. The interventions included zinc supplementation in pregnant women (three studies), micronutrient or macronutrient supplementation in children (eight studies), nutrition education for pregnant women (two studies), and nutrition systems strengthening targeting children (two studies) intervention. Six interventions were adapted to the urban context and seven targeted household, community, or 'service delivery' via systems strengthening. The primary review outcomes were available from seven studies for LFA/HFA, four for LBW, and nine for length. The studies had overall high risk of bias for 11 studies and only four RCTs had moderate risk of bias. Overall, the evidence was complex to report, with a wide range of outcome measures reported. Consequently, only eight study findings were reported in meta-analyses and seven in a narrative form. The certainty of evidence was very low to moderate overall. None of the studies reported differential impacts of interventions relevant to equity issues. Zinc supplementation of pregnant women on LBW or length (versus supplementation without zinc or placebo) (three RCTs) There was no evidence of an effect on LBW (MD-36.13 g, 95% CI-83.61 to 11.35), with moderate-certainty evidence, or no evidence of an effect or unclear effect on length with low-to moderate-certainty evidence. Micronutrient or macronutrient supplementation in children (versus no intervention or placebo) (eight RCTs) There was no evidence of an effect or unclear effect of nutrient supplementation of children on HFA for studies in the meta-analysis with low-certainty evidence (MD-0.02, 95% CI-0.06 to 0.02), and inconclusive effect on length for studies reported in a narrative form with very low-to moderate-certainty evidence. Nutrition education for pregnant women (versus standard care or no intervention) (two RCTs) There was a positive impact on LBW of education interventions in pregnant women, with low-certainty evidence (MD 478.44g, 95% CI 423.55 to 533.32). Nutrition systems strengthening interventions targeting children (compared with no intervention, standard care) (one RCT and one controlled before-and-after study) There were inconclusive results on HFA, with very low-to low-certainty evidence, and a positive influence on length at 18 months, with low-certainty evidence. Authors' conclusions All the nutritional interventions reviewed had the potential to decrease stunting, based on evidence from outside of slum contexts; however, there was no evidence of an effect of the interventions included in this review (very low-to moderate-certainty evidence). Challenges linked to urban slum programming (high mobility, lack of social services, and high loss of follow-up) should be taken into account when nutrition-specific interventions are proposed to address LBW and stunting in such environments. More evidence is needed of the effects of multi-sectorial interventions, combining nutrition-specific and sensitive methods and programmes, as well as the effects of 'up-stream' practices and policies of governmental, non-governmental organisations, and the business sector on nutrition-related outcomes such as stunting.

BACKGROUND: Nutritional interventions to prevent stunting of infants and young children are most often applied in rural areas in low‐ and middle‐income countries (LMIC). Few interventions are focused on urban slums. The literature needs a systematic assessment, as infants and children living in slums are at high risk of stunting. Urban slums are complex environments in terms of biological, social, and political variables and the outcomes of nutritional interventions need to be assessed in relation to these variables. For the purposes of this review, we followed the UN‐Habitat 2004 definitions for low‐income informal settlements or slums as lacking one or more indicators of basic services or infrastructure. OBJECTIVES: To assess the impact of nutritional interventions to reduce stunting in infants and children under five years old in urban slums from LMIC and the effect of nutritional interventions on other nutritional (wasting and underweight) and non‐nutritional outcomes (socioeconomic, health and developmental) in addition to stunting. SEARCH METHODS: The review used a sensitive search strategy of electronic databases, bibliographies of articles, conference proceedings, websites, grey literature, and contact with experts and authors published from 1990. We searched 32 databases, in English and non‐English languages (MEDLINE, CENTRAL, Web of Science, Ovid MEDLINE, etc). We performed the initial literature search from November 2015 to January 2016, and conducted top up searches in March 2017 and in August 2018. SELECTION CRITERIA: Research designs included randomised (including cluster‐randomised) trials, quasi‐randomised trials, non‐randomised controlled trials, controlled before‐and‐after studies, pre‐ and postintervention, interrupted time series (ITS), and historically controlled studies among infants and children from LMIC, from birth to 59 months, living in urban slums. The interventions included were nutrition‐specific or maternal education. The primary outcomes were length or height expressed in cm or ...

Objective. We explore how the health, as measured by physical growth, of children in Guatemalan Maya families is impacted by immigration to the United States. Methods. We analyze anthropometric data on Maya children in Guatemala and in the United States. In addition, we use survey data from the Maya–American children and their parents about lifestyle and SES to examine the factors associated with overweight and obesity. Results. The Maya–American children are on average 10 centimeters taller, indicating better health. However, nearly half the Maya–American children are overweight and 42 percent are obese. Children who report watching TV or playing computer games as one of their favorite leisure time activities face a higher chance of being overweight. Conclusion. Immigration from Guatemala to the United States improves the health of children in that they generally grow taller. However, immigration also raises the risk of weight problems, increasing the likelihood of health problems such as hypertension and diabetes.

Objective. We explore how the health, as measured by physical growth, of children in Guatemalan Maya families is impacted by immigration to the US. Methods. We analyze anthropometric data on Maya children in Guatemala & in the US. In addition, we use survey data from the Maya-American children & their parents about lifestyle & SES to examine the factors associated with overweight & obesity. Results. The Maya-American children are on average 10 centimeters taller, indicating better health. However, nearly half the Maya-American children are overweight, & 42% are obese. Children who report watching TV or playing computer games as one of their favorite leisure time activities face a higher chance of being overweight. Conclusion. Immigration from Guatemala to the US improves the health of children in that they generally grow taller. However, immigration also raises the risk of weight problems, increasing the likelihood of health problems such as hypertension & diabetes. 2 Tables, 2 Figures, 20 References. Adapted from the source document.

In this article we report the main results of a multidisci plinary research project that addressed the human body in terms of social and historical processes immersed in the fields of economic and political power. Our studies on the Maya population from Merida, Yucatan, carried out in the last 15 years, highlight the long-term consequences of the living conditions in which Maya people are born, grow and reproduce. The current situation is alarming because growth and nutritional status of children and adult women reflect the effects of chronic poverty. They suffer from both extremes of malnutrition: undernutrition —expressed as stunting in children and short stature in adult women— and overnutrition —expressed in high rates of overweight and obesity in adult women—. Finally, we found evidence that the poor living conditions experienced by Maya mothers and grandmothers have adverse effects on the most recent generations. ; Comunicamos resultados centrales de un proyecto multidisciplinario que abordó la corporeidad humana como un producto social, histórico, inmerso en un campo de ejercicio del poder. Nuestros estudios de grupos mayas en Mérida, Yucatán, realizados en los últimos quince años, evidencian las consecuencias a largo plazo de las condiciones de vida en que nacen, crecen y se reproducen. El panorama es desalentador, pues el crecimiento y estado nutricional de niños y madres adultas participantes expresan los efectos de carencias y pobreza crónicas que han sido una constante entre la población maya de Yucatán. Entre ellos coexiste la mala nutrición en dos facetas: desnutrición crónica —expresada por el desmedro, en los niños, y talla baja en las mujeres adultas— y sobrepeso muy frecuente entre mujeres adultas. Finalmente, encontramos indicios de que las pobres condiciones de vida experimentadas por madres y abuelas mayas tienen efectos adversos en las generaciones más recientes.

In the United Kingdom, Bangladeshi women have the lowest self-reported levels of physical activity and some of the highest levels of metabolic disease of all ethnic groups. To better understand these risks for poor health we employed life course and intergenerational hypotheses to predict lower body physical function in a sample of 121 Bangladeshi mothers (40–70 years old) and one of their adult daughters (17–36 years old) living in Bangladesh or in the UK. For the mothers, older age and shorter knee height predicted reduced lower body physical function. Knee height is a biomarker of nutrition and health status between birth and puberty. Age at first birth did not have a significant effect. For daughters, older age and migration to the UK predicted reduced lower body physical function. We controlled for total stature and fatness in all analyses. UK-born daughters were taller than BD-born daughters living in the UK, mostly due to differences in knee height. These new findings support previous research indicating that early life health and adequate nutritional status, along with appropriate adult physical activity and diet, may decrease risks for poor physical function, morbidity, and premature mortality.

Adult height is the most commonly used biological indicator to evaluate material and emotional conditions in which people grew up, allowing the analysis of secular trends associated with socio-economic change as well as of social inequalities among human populations. There is a lack of studies on both aspects regarding urban populations. Our study evaluates the secular trends and the disparities in height of conscripts born between 1915 and 1953 and called-up at the age of 21 between 1936 and 1969, living in districts with low versus middle and high socio-economic conditions, in the city of Madrid, Spain. We test the hypothesis that urban spatial segregation and social stratification was associated with significant differences in height. Results show that height increased significantly during the analysed period, both among conscripts living in the middle- and upper-class districts (5.85 cm) and in the lower-class districts (6.75 cm). The positive secular trend in height among conscripts from middle- and upper-class districts was sustained throughout the period, but the trend in height among the lower class fluctuated according to social, political, and economic events. Our findings support previous research that adult height is influenced strongly by the family living conditions during infancy and by community effects acting during childhood and adolescence ; Ministry of Science, Innovation, and Universities (Spain), project Desigualdad y pobreza en España en el muy largo plazo. Nuevas aproximaciones desde los niveles de vida biológicos (DESPOBES) HAR2016-76814-C2-2-P (MINECO/AEI/FEDER/UE)