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This article suggests how notions of replacing, supplementing and valuing care by the family can be linked with policy instruments of childcare services, leave provisions, and cash for care by family, to influence care arrangements at collective and individual levels. It analyses care arrangements in Japan and Korea, estimating their changes over approximately ten years using the care time mix approach. The findings suggest that at the beginning of the new millennium, care arrangements in both countries were configured as female>non-state>male>state. A decade later, Japan remains the same, whereas Korea has become a paid care economy configured as non-state>female>male>state. Unpaid care economy remains gendered, but over time, Japanese men's contribution has marginally increased, with the opposite being true in Korea. The article discusses what the transformation of the paid care economy in Korea, and its expansion in Japan, imply for social structures in the respective countries.

This paper examines what determines mothers' work and family reconciliation in the Republic of Korea. We conducted a survey to examine the influence of use of institutional options such as childcare leave and services, and cultural orientation towards gender roles on the probability of being employed, paid and unpaid care work time, and monthly wages. Our findings show that mothers' with high education tend to be in paid work and to have more traditional attitudes towards gender role. The use of maternity leave increases but the use of parental leave tends to decrease mothers' labor market participation. Maternity leave also is found to influence positively on working mothers' monthly wages. However, no factor is found to be relevant to reduce working mothers' time spent on unpaid care work. Issues have been put forwarded for policy considerations. Firstly, the use of maternity leave should be encouraged and job protection needs to be secured with the use of parental leave. Secondly, mothers with relatively higher education tend to prefer familial care to institutional care. Last but not least, the availability of institutional care services do not effectively reduce mothers' time spent on unpaid care work.

The provision of childcare in Korea and Japan has traditionally been intensively conducted within the family. Recent social and demographic transformations have been profound and these have resulted in significant policy changes in both countries. This study examines the institutional configurations of the provisions of childcare among the state, market, and family and how they have changed in Korea and Japan over time. The institutional configurations were quantitatively evaluated based on an estimation of care time. Our findings suggest that care time provided in market and state facilities has become much larger in Japan than in Korea. In both countries, the care time provided by market facilities is much larger than in state facilities. Over the years, both market and state provisions of care have increased in Korea whereas state care provisions have decreased and market provisions have increased in Japan. However, this does not mean that the centralization of the family in the provision of childcare has shifted. In fact, the care time within the family has increased in both countries, suggesting that Korea and Japan have become more caring welfare states.

Résumé Le présent article examine les effets des réformes de la pension nationale sur les femmes et les hommes en République de Corée. En 2007, le gouvernement coréen a mis en place un régime de pension de vieillesse de base soumis à une condition de ressource qui sert des prestations forfaitaires. Il a aussi validé le temps consacréà l'éducation des enfants et a modifié les conditions d'ouverture des droits pour les personnes divorcées et veuves. Sont étudiées les incidences de ces changements d'orientation sur les personnes dont la durée de vie active est plus courte et dont les salaires sont inférieurs, sur les survivants et sur le rôle traditionnel de protection sociale que la famille joue en Corée. Il ressort des constatations que les réformes présentent certains aspects positifs. Elles demeurent toutefois plus favorables à ceux dont les revenus sont plus élevés et qui n'ont jamais cessé de travailler, ce qui caractérise davantage les actifs de sexe masculin. De plus, le rôle important que joue la famille dans la garantie des revenus fait partie intégrante des dispositions et la protection assurée aux survivants demeure faible.

AuszugDer vorliegende Artikel untersucht die geschlechterspezifische Wirkung der Reform des nationalen Rentensystems (NR) in der Republik Korea. Im Jahr 2007 führte die koreanische Regierung ein einkommensabhängiges Altersgrundrentensystem mit pauschalen Grundrenten ein. Zugleich wurde die Anrechnung von Zeiten der Kinderbetreuung für Rentenansprüche eingeführt und die Anspruchsvoraussetzungen für Geschiedene und Witwen und Witwer geändert. Der vorliegende Beitrag untersucht die Auswirkungen dieser neuen Politik auf Personen mit kürzeren Erwerbsbiografien und niedrigeren Löhnen, auf Hinterbliebene und auf die in Korea traditionelle Rolle der Familie im Sozialschutz. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Reformen einige positive Aspekte haben. Aber auch nach den Reformen erhalten Personen mit höherem Verdienst und einer ununterbrochenen Erwerbsbiografie mehr — beides Kriterien, die häufiger auf männliche Arbeitnehmer zutreffen. Ferner ist die wichtige Rolle der Familie für die Einkommenssicherung weiterhin stark in den Bestimmungen verankert, und der Schutz für Hinterbliebene bleibt schwach.

ResumenEste artículo examina el impacto de género que tendrán las reformas de la Pensión Nacional de la República de Corea. En 2007, el Gobierno coreano introdujo un régimen de pensiones básicas de vejez sujetas a verificación de recursos que incluía el pago de subsidios fijos. También introdujo períodos subvencionados de cobertura de las pensiones por crianza de los hijos y cambió las condiciones de titularidad de las personas divorciadas y viudas. Este artículo examina el impacto que tendrán estas reformas en las personas con historiales laborales más cortos y salarios más bajos, en los sobrevivientes y en el papel tradicional de protección social que desempeña la familia en Corea. Las conclusiones indican que las reformas tienen algunos aspectos positivos. No obstante, las reformas siguen favoreciendo más a quienes tienen ingresos más altos y un historial laboral ininterrumpido, aspectos que son más característicos de los trabajadores varones. Es más, el importante papel que desempeña la familia en la seguridad de ingresos sigue estando sólidamente arraigado en la legislación y, por otro lado, la protección de los sobrevivientes sigue siendo insuficiente.