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The article outlines a methodology for systematically observing collective violence (and public order policing in relation to it). Specific attention is given to matters of sampling and measurement and to the way in which observational challenges have been met in comparison with participant observational studies of demonstrations and football matches. The article shows that it is possible to conduct meaningful systematic observations of episodes of collective violence in a reliable way (more complete and more detailed than police records or newspaper reports) without compromising the physical safety of the observer. Even though violence at these types of events is relatively rare, it is also possible specifically to sample events with an increased likelihood for collective violence. Direct systematic observation of collective violence yields data that cannot be obtained by other means (surveys, interviews, participant observation) and that are crucial to an understanding of the initiation and escalation of collective violence.

As forças policiais diferenciam-se nos métodos de intervenção que utilizam para manter a lei e a ordem em grandes eventos que põem em perigo a ordem pública, a exemplo das partidas de futebol de alto risco e de certas manifestações públicas. Tradicionalmente, a ênfase no treinamento e desempenho policiais se coloca nas táticas de controle antidistúrbios e no uso de armas não letais, incluindo desde o cassetete e os produtos químicos até os canhões de água e as balas de borracha. A maior parte dos estudos geralmente deixam de lado a perspectiva policial e ignoram o fato de que os acontecimentos da ordem pública são processos intergrupais e uma consequência de interações em desenvolvimento. Neste artigo, apresentam-se os resultados de algumas pesquisas empíricas sobre a atuação da polícia na manutenção da ordem pública, que colocam em questão as perspectivas tradicionais do comportamento das massas. PALAVRAS-CHAVE: ordem pública, policiamento de futebol jogos, táticas antimotim, a dinâmica das multidões, controle de multidões. MAINTENANCE OF PUBLIC ORDER: theory, practice and teaching of the police for the European Football Championship in 2000 and 2004 Otto M.J. Adang Police forces differ in the methods of intervention used to maintain law and order in major events that endanger public order, like high risk soccer matches and certain public demonstrations. Traditionally, the emphasis on police performance and training is put on riot control tactics and use of nonlethal weapons, from batons and chemicals to water cannons and rubber bullets. Most studies generally fail to consider the perspective of the police and ignore the fact that the events of public order are intergroup processes and a consequence of interactions in development. In this paper, we present the results of some empirical research on the role of police in maintaining public order, which put into question the traditional perspectives of behavior of the masses. KEYWORDS: public order, policing of football matches, riot control tactics, dynamics of crowds, crowd control. MAINTIEN DE 'L'ORDRE PUBLIC: théorie, pratique et formation de la police pour le Championnat Européen de Football en 2000 et 2004 Otto M.J. Adang Les forces de police s'exercent de manière différente en fonction des méthodes d'intervention utilisées pour maintenir l'ordre et faire respecter la loi dans les grandes manifestations qui mettent en danger l'ordre public, tels les matchs de football à haut risque et certaines manifestations publiques. Traditionnellement, l'accent est mis sur la formation et les performances de la police quant aux tactiques de contrôle antiémeutes et l'utilisation d'armes non létales, y compris les bâtons et les produits chimiques, les canons à eau et les balles en caoutchouc. La plupart des études ne tient généralement pas compte du point de vue de la police et ignore le fait que les événements dus à l'action de l'ordre public sont le résultat d'un processus intergroupes et la conséquence d'interactions en développement. Dans cet article, nous présentons les résultats d'une série de recherches empiriques sur le rôle de la police pour le maintien de l'ordre public, qui remet en question l'approche traditionnelle du comportement des masses. MOTS-CLÉS: ordre public, surveillance policière des matchs de football, tactiques antiémeutes, dynamique des foules, contrôle des foules. Publicação Online do Caderno CRH: http://www.cadernocrh.ufba.br Publicação Online do Caderno CRH no Scielo: http://www.scielo.br/ccrh

Abstract
The paper introduces Police Technology Assessment (PTA) to assess the feasibility of a new technology, in this case non-penetrating projectiles (NPPs) (both single- and multi-pellet) for public order maintenance. A PTA allows for a more complete and realistic assessment of the effects of less-lethal weapons than the medical and technical assessments that are usually applied. It assesses the socio-technical framework in which the weapons are to be positioned, including training, guidelines, and behaviour as well as individual and societal perceptions of the weapon within the complex interactions existing between these factors. The conclusion of the assessment is that implementation of NPPs for public order maintenance or riot control does not provide a realistic or effective potential use in line with the public order management concept in use in the Netherlands, whereas use of such projectiles would carry great risks, which include risks to the societal support for the way the police maintains public order.

The use of force by the police and other law enforcement officers has long been a significant topic of concern, especially when it results in death. This issue and the controversies around it have recently been highlighted by a series of high-profile deaths in 2020. Police Lethal Force and Accountability assesses the frequency of deaths, and the availability and reliability of information regarding deaths, associated with the application of force by law enforcement agencies in four jurisdictions: Belgium, England & Wales, France and the Netherlands. By adopting a common set of considerations for assessing the policies and practices within these individual jurisdictions, this report enables comparisons to be made across them. In doing so, we look to provide those in policing agencies, campaigning groups, government ministries and others, with sound information with which they can identify priorities to ensure uses of force are being accurately recorded and investigated. By enabling those concerned to understand how uses of force are recorded and addressed in comparison with other jurisdictions, we hope this report will help them to build a stronger case when holding public institutions accountable and identifying points for improvement. As documented, while deaths from the use of force appear relatively rare across these four jurisdictions when compared to countries such as the US the procedures and policies for recording, investigating and disclosing details associated with deaths are wanting. The availability of official information on the number of deaths associated with the use of force, its reliability, and the extent of details collected on those that die at the hands of the state vary from country to country. While there are elements of good practice, the procedures and policies are often lacking in critical respects. As a result of such deficiencies, it is difficult to assess many important dimensions of policing, including whether some communities are disproportionality subjected to the lethal use of force. Ultimately, reducing the extent of police force requires addressing underlying societal conditions associated with employment, health, housing and education. However, more can be done by law enforcement agencies, as well as by their oversight bodies and government ministers. Assembling data and evidence that is accessible, relevant and useful to those concerned with lethal force is a necessary step to enhance accountability for, and possibly prevent, deaths. In the context of democratic societies, the police and police-related bodies not only need to act on what they know in order to learn lessons, but also to demonstrate they are doing so to the populations they are meant to serve. Every death associated with the use of force by law enforcement officials should be recorded, recognised and investigated. No one's death should go unacknowledged and unexamined.

International audience ; This article focuses on a research project conducted in six jurisdictions: England, The Netherlands, Germany, Australia, Venezuela, and Brazil. These societies are very different ethnically, socially, politically, economically, historically and have wildly different levels of crime. Their policing arrangements also differ significantly: how they are organised; how their officers are equipped and trained; what routine operating procedures they employ; whether they are armed; and much else besides. Most relevant for this research, they represent policing systems with wildly different levels of police shootings, Police in the two Latin American countries represented here have a justified reputation for the frequency with which they shoot people, whereas at the other extreme the police in England do not routinely carry firearms and rarely shoot anyone. To probe whether these differences are reflected in the way that officers talk about the use of force, police officers in these different jurisdictions were invited to discuss in focus groups a scenario in which police are thwarted in their attempt to arrest two youths (one of whom is a known local criminal) by the youths driving off with the police in pursuit, and concludes with the youths crashing their car and escaping in apparent possession of a gun, It might be expected that focus groups would prove starkly different, and indeed they were, but not in the way that might be expected. There was little difference in affirmation of normative and legal standards regarding the use of force. It was in how officers in different jurisdictions envisaged the circumstances in which the scenario took place that led Latin American officers to anticipate that they would shoot the suspects, whereas officers in the other jurisdictions had little expectation that they would open fire in the conditions as they imagined them to be.