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While a burgeoning literature has documented the unequal distribution of COVID-19 confirmed cases,there is still little evidence on the causal effect of the epidemic on mortality inequalities. In this pa-per, we exploit exhaustive municipality-level data in France, one of the most severely hit country in the world, to identify a persistent negative relationship between income and excess mortality withinurban areas. Over the year 2020, the poorest municipalities experienced a 42% higher increase inexcess mortality. Our analyses further reveal that the policy responses to the epidemic - including thelockdowns - play no role in this heterogeneous impact. Last, we show that both labour-market expo-sure and housing conditions are major determinants of the direct effect of the epidemic on mortalityinequalities, but that their respective role depends on the state of the epidemic and the lockdown policy

PSE Working Papers n° 2020-44 ; While COVID-19 was already responsible for more than 500,000 deaths worldwide as of July 3, 2020, very little is known on the socio-economic heterogeneity of its impact on mortality. In this paper, we combine several administrative data sources to estimate the relationship between mortalitydue to COVID-19 and poverty at a very local level (i.e. the municipality level) in France, one of the most severely hit country in the world. We nd strong evidence of an income gradient in the impact of the pandemic on mortality: it is twice as large in the poorest municipalities compared to othermunicipalities. We then show that both poor housing conditions and higher occupational exposure are likely mechanisms. Overall, these mechanisms accounts for up to 60% of the difference observed between rich and poor municipalities.

Mortality inequalities remain substantial in many countries, and large shocks such as pandemics could amplify them further. The unequal distribution of COVID-19 confirmed cases suggests that this is the case. Yet, evidence on the causal effect of the epidemic on mortality inequalities remains scarce. In this paper, we exploit exhaustive municipality-level data in France, one of the most severely hit country in the world, to identify a negative relationship between income and excess mortality within urban areas, that persists over COVID-19 waves. Over the year 2020, the poorest municipalities experienced a 30% higher increase in excess mortality. Our analyses can rule out the contribution of policy responses (such as lockdown) in this heterogeneous impact. Finally, we show that both labour-market exposure and housing conditions are major determinants of the direct effect of the epidemic on mortality inequalities, but that their respective role depends on the state of the epidemic.

Mortality inequalities remain substantial in many countries, and large shocks such as pandemics could amplify them further. The unequal distribution of COVID-19 confirmed cases suggests that this is the case. Yet, evidence on the causal effect of the epidemic on mortality inequalities remains scarce. In this paper, we exploit exhaustive municipality-level data in France, one of the most severely hit country in the world, to identify a negative relationship between income and excess mortality within urban areas, that persists over COVID-19 waves. Over the year 2020, the poorest municipalities experienced a 30% higher increase in excess mortality. Our analyses can rule out the contribution of policy responses (such as lockdown) in this heterogeneous impact. Finally, we show that both labour-market exposure and housing conditions are major determinants of the direct effect of the epidemic on mortality inequalities, but that their respective role depends on the state of the epidemic.

Mortality inequalities remain substantial in many countries, and large shocks such as pandemics could amplify them further. The unequal distribution of COVID-19 confirmed cases suggests that this is the case. Yet, evidence on the causal effect of the epidemic on mortality inequalities remains scarce. In this paper, we exploit exhaustive municipality-level data in France, one of the most severely hit country in the world, to identify a negative relationship between income and excess mortality within urban areas, that persists over COVID-19 waves. Over the year 2020, the poorest municipalities experienced a 30% higher increase in excess mortality. Our analyses can rule out the contribution of policy responses (such as lockdown) in this heterogeneous impact. Finally, we show that both labour-market exposure and housing conditions are major determinants of the direct effect of the epidemic on mortality inequalities, but that their respective role depends on the state of the epidemic.

Contents: 1. Introduction / Kakuya Matsushima and William P. Anderson -- Part I: Transportation infrastructure and economic growth -- 2. Railways and regional growth, dispersion and concentration in Scandinavia during 150 years / Hans Westlund -- 3. Regional economic impacts of a transportation infrastructure project: the Herb Grey parkway / William P. Anderson, Hanna Maoh and Charles Burke -- 4. Modeling transportation in general equilibrium / Gautam Ray -- 5. Comparative assessment of public transportation infrastructure and regional economic development / Zhenhua Chen and Kingsley E. Haynes -- Part II: Models for transportation planning and policy -- 6. Second best toll pricing of highway taking account of maintenance costs / Shunsuke Segi and Kiyoshi Kobayashi -- 7. Armington elasticities in multi-regional trade for transport policy in Japan / Keisuke Sato and Atsushi Koike -- 8. Empirical analysis of transport cost for interregional trade / Yoko Konishi, Se-il Mun, Yoshihiko Nishiyama and Ji-eun Sung -- 9. Airport charges, infrastructure life cycle, and economic impact: a case study of Hong Kong / Yulai Wan and Anming Zhang -- Part III: Studies on the spatial structure of cities -- 10. Synergy effects of face-to-face interactions and urban spatial structure / Toshimori Otazawa and Yuki Ohira -- 11. Endogenous formation of urban structure with residential sorting / Kakuya Matsushima and Kiyoshi Kobayashi -- 12. A discount point system and vitalization of a commercial district with small retail / Kiyoshi Kobayashi and Masamitsu Onishi -- 13. Personal purpose inter-regional travels: an integrator of historical inter-regional migrations / Makoto Okumura and Hiromichi Yamaguchi -- 14. A model of commuting and the economic milieu : an analysis using aggregated data for Sweden / Thomas Laitila, Marie Lundgren and Michael Olsson -- Part IV: Transformations in the knowledge economy -- 15. Internal and external knowledge and development in regions / åke E Andersson and Börje Johansson -- Dedication: Professor Kiyoshi Kobayashi / Kakuya Matsushima and Bill Anderson -- Index.

Since well before the turn of this century economists have been attempting to explain the phenomena associated with pricing in the transportation industry. Of recent years this subject has received both descriptive and prescriptive treatment at the hands of welfare economists. In the course of this paper it will be argued that the current descriptive theory is based upon a fundamental misconception of the nature of transportation output and that, in consequence, the policy prescriptions, even when they are right, are usually right for the wrong reasons.As a starting point it will be useful to recall a controversy which began with a journal article, written some sixty years ago, in which Professor Taussig was endeavouring to show that railway rates could be fitted within the framework of general price theory. He argued that the wide differentials which were apparent in the railways' charges for their services could be explained by the preponderant influence of joint costs. If this were true, the rates charged for output A would be the consequence of passive adjustments in price to changes in the output of B in response to changes in demand for the latter product. Actually Taussig argued that the commodities transported (e.g., coal and copper) were sold to different consumers and should be treated as different products. Many years later the criticisms of Professor Pigou precipitated a lengthy debate over the validity of the joint cost doctrine, Pigou contending that railway output was homogeneous and measurable in units of ton-miles.

Testimony issued by the General Accounting Office with an abstract that begins "This testimony discusses challenges in defining the federal role with respect to freight transportation issues. There are concerns that the projected increases in freight tonnage for all transportation modes will place pressures on the marine, aviation, and highway transportation systems. As a result, there is growing awareness of the need to view various transportation modes, and freight movement in particular, from an integrated standpoint, particularly for the purposes of developing and implementing a federal investment strategy and considering alternative funding approaches. The federal approach for funding the marine transportation system relies heavily on general revenues, although the approach for funding the aviation and highway systems relies almost exclusively on collections from users of the systems. During fiscal years 1999 through 2001, customs duties on imported goods transported through the transportation systems averaged $15 billion each year for the marine transportation system, $4 billion each year for the aviation system, and $900 million each year for the highway system. Customs duties are taxes on the value of imported goods and have traditionally been viewed as revenues to be used for the support of the general activities of the federal government. Diverse industry stakeholders believe that substantial new investments in the maritime infrastructure may be required from public and private sources because of an aging infrastructure, changes in the shipping industry, and increased concerns about security. A systematic framework would be helpful to decision makers as they consider the federal government's purpose and role in providing funding for the system and as they develop a sound investment approach to guide federal participation. In examining federal investment approaches across many national activities, GAO has identified four key components of such a framework--establishing national goals, defining the federal role, determining appropriate funding tools, and evaluating performance--which could potentially be applied to all transportation systems."

Testimony issued by the General Accounting Office with an abstract that begins "The scope of the U.S. surface and maritime transportation systems--which primarily includes roads, mass transit systems, railroads, and ports and waterways--is vast. One of the major goals of these systems is to provide and enhance mobility. With increasing passenger and freight travel, the surface and maritime transportation systems face a number of challenges in ensuring continued mobility. These challenges include: (1) preventing congestion from overwhelming the transportation system, and (2) ensuring access to transportation for certain underserved populations and achieving a balance between enhancing mobility and giving due regard to environmental and other social goals. There is no one solution for the mobility challenges facing the nation, and numerous approaches are needed to address these challenges. These strategies include: (1) focusing on the entire surface and maritime transportation system rather than on specific modes or types of travel to achieve desired mobility outcomes, (2) using a full range of techniques to achieve desired mobility outcomes, and (3) providing more options for financing mobility improvements and considering additional sources of revenue."

"GAO/AFMD-89-47." ; "B-214149"--P. 1. ; "August 1989." ; Cover title. ; Mode of access: Internet.

Testimony issued by the General Accounting Office with an abstract that begins "The Department of Transportation (DOT) faces critical challenges in achieving its goals of ensuring the safe and efficient movement of people and goods and in making cost-effective investments in the nation's transportation infrastructure. Many of the challenges GAO identified at DOT are long-standing and will require sustained attention by the new administration and Congress. Although the Department has efforts under way to address the shortcomings of its programs, these activities have not been fully implemented. Their success will depend on a strong commitment from DOT's new leadership and a sustained effort to identify and address critical human capital issues. Finally, as they address the problems facing each of the individual components, given the myriad of demands for new resources, the new administration and Congress must think and act to ensure that their transportation decisions reflect an intermodal transportation strategy that addresses the most pressing national needs in a cost-beneficial manner. This testimony summarizes a January GAO report (GAO-01-253)."