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Master's thesis in History didactics ; The main objective of this thesis is to investigate if Adolf Hitler used a populist style in his campaign for power during in the Weimar Republic. A contemporary understanding of populism has been used in this investigation. The thesis provides a review of recent scholarly literature on populism which is used as a reference in the investigation of Hitler and his agitation for the Nazi party. The basis for the investigation of Hitler is his book Mein Kampf and excerpts from some of his speeches. Excerpts from the leftist weekly magazine Die Weltbühne that was issued during the Weimar period has been used to provide some insight into how Hitler and the Nazis were viewed at the time. Some historical background for the events during the Weimar Republic is provided. The conclusion of this main objective of the thesis is that Hitler used a populist style to gain power in 1933. The secondary objective of the thesis is to provide a description of how populism has been expressed in the USA during the first three years of Donald Trump's presidency. The scholarly literature on populism is used to explain some background for Trump's populist behaviour. Opinions from the liberal press, mainly The New York Times and The Washington Post and also from recent books on Trump's presidency are used to illustrate the situation. Populism thrives in the tension which exists in a democracy between popular sovereignty and liberal democracy with its emphasis on human rights, individual liberties, a political discourse based upon expertise and facts and the rule of law. A third objective of the thesis is to provide some comments on how populist leadership has challenged liberal democracy, as exemplified by the presidency of Donald Trump and Adolf Hitler's assumption of power as Reichskanzler in the Weimar Republic. ; updatedVersion

Source at https://doi.org/10.18261/issn.1891-943x-2018-04-02 . ; Over ten years have passed since Norwegian educational reform implemented the use of digital tools as a required basic skill in all subjects and at all levels of Norwegian schools. However, government surveys show that there is still a significant gap between the intention of educational policies and what is actually practiced in Norwegian education. This gap has often been attributed to practitioners' skill deficiency. This paper challenges the notion of practitioners' skill deficiency as being the sole causal explanation for lack of progress, and attempts to explore this through a comparative study between initial teacher education in Norway and New Zealand. Our analysis has shown some significant differences between the countries, and based on our findings, this article discusses how such differences may be connected to policy development and political influence. This analysis contributes to a broader understanding of the complexity behind this gap. Understanding the bigger picture is essential for being able to work constructively towards diminishing the difference between policy intentions and practice in the future. Our findings suggest that top-down governance of the educational use of digital technology could create resistance among teacher educators. It could therefore be understood as counterproductive regarding progress. Prioritising policy goals above pedagogical goals in this field is contrary to teachers' understanding of teacher proficiency.

Source at https://doi.org/10.1080/13538322.2019.1603611 . ; This paper explores the digitalisation of teaching and learning understood as external processes, influenced by government and international trends and as internal processes within the institutions, in Denmark and Norway. These are countries with similarities regarding digitalisation and educational systems. In the internal processes, there was some use of digital technology in teaching and learning when initiated from administration including IT-staff, in collaboration with academic leaders. There was little or only limited reported use of technology for teaching and learning, when the processes were initiated by administration together with enthusiasts among faculty staff, who did not have leadership roles or influence on change. There was more reported use of technology in teaching and learning in Denmark than Norway. The paper discusses possible explanations for these findings and thus illuminates how processes of digitalisation are influenced by broader governance arrangements, institutional maturity and academic and administration staffs.

Approaching the 500-year Reformation anniversary, the article discusses what might legitimize Luther as a topic in today's society and educational practice. Are his crucial ideas an exclusively religious heritage, or could they be converted to issues of common relevance? Referring to the ways Luther was used by the GDR state and church in the 1983 anniversary, the article questions the potential for recontextualizing his specifically theological issues. By this, it relates to a current debate in religion didactics whether stories could be taught according to their religiously specific or universal, existential dimensions – cf. the question of learning about or from religion. The cultural and political impact of Luther's theology obviously make it relevant as common heritage. His theological issue, however – man's lack of free will (De servo arbitrio), and his view on «theological man» as defined solely by God's justification (De homine), which Luther considers to be his primary concern – appears to be counter-intuitive, i.e. different from what seems right or natural. Hence, it challenges the concept of cultural heritage, but proves a critical corrective to common, essentialist justifications of human dignity, cultural identity and superiority – which makes it an issue to be learnt from and not only about. ; publishedVersion

We have studied how eliciting historical empathy in a class of 13th grade students through using the film 12 Years a Slave (McQueen, 2013) supported their in-depth understanding of slavery in nineteenth-century USA. Historical empathy is one of the core elements of the new curricular reform implemented from 2020 in Norway, and it is believed to have potential to strengthen: (1) students' future citizenship and participation in democratic and multicultural societies; and (2) students' in-depth understanding of history. We implemented a five-week lesson plan with different activities based around the film, and used students' assignments to evaluate their feelings about the lessons and their historical understanding of slavery. The results confirmed the potential of film to enhance historical empathy when the screening is well prepared and combined with relevant activities. Students demonstrated a high level of engagement and managed to perform complex tasks. Both their ability to contextualise and to 'care' improved. Particularly, students' historical understanding of slavery was boosted by the group conversations and the dialogic nature of the activities in the classroom. In addition, we observed a greater positive influence on boys' achievements compared with girls' – a finding which is interesting in a wider educational context and which needs further exploration. ; publishedVersion

The main aim of this qualitative case study is to contribute with insights into teacher educators' digital competence in teaching Art and Design subjects in teacher training institutions (TTIs) in Uganda. The study employed semi-structured interviews and non-participant observations to gather qualitative data from teacher educators (TEs), teacher trainees (TTs) and administrators at two teacher training institutions in Uganda to answer the following research questions (RQs) in order to achieve its main goal. RQ1: In what ways are teacher educators using digital technology when teaching art and design in Uganda? RQ2: How do art and design teacher educators develop their digital competence in Teacher Training Institutions in Uganda? RQ3: What challenges do teacher educators encounter when teaching art and design with digital technology in Uganda? On the basis of these RQs and theoretical concepts from van Dijk (2005), Mishra and Koehler (2006), data was analysed from which three research articles (referred to in this thesis as; Article I, II and III respectively) each addressing one of the RQs were published. Briefly, the findings in Article I indicate that, TEs occasionally use digital technologies in basic and low creative means to teach in A&D classrooms. This may be attributed to insufficient access to adequate digital resources (hardware, software and internet), insufficient digital skills and knowledge relating to pedagogical use of digital technologies in A&D classrooms. The findings further confirm teacher educators' limited awareness of the relationship between technology, pedagogy and content knowledge (TPACK) in teaching Art and Design subjects. The lack of TPACK among TEs explains the low creative use of digital technologies in teaching A&D lessons in Uganda's TTIs. The findings in Article II indicate that art and design TEs develop digital competences through both formal and informal approaches. The formal approaches include continuous professional development (CPD) and pre-service training, whereas informal approaches include collaboration, self-teaching and repetition. Apparently, teachers' digital competences (TDC) gained through formal approaches did not relate specifically to the teaching of art and design subjects, making it inadequate and difficult to apply in real classroom practice. Further, the findings suggest to a larger extent that TEs develop moderate TDC, necessary for practical use in the classroom, through informal approaches. The findings in Article III reveal numerous motivational challenges (linked to negative attitude, lack of self-confidence, lack of time, inadequate digital competence and fear for loss of creativity) and challenges related to material access such as; lack of adequate access to digital technologies, unreliable electricity supply, technological failures and lack of adequate technical support. Article III further provides and discusses alternative strategies employed by TEs such as peer support, continual practice, improvisation, lobbying for technical and financial support, and advocating for BYOD to cope with the existing challenges. To sum up, the study findings generally reveal that, teacher educators' digital competences (TDC) remained operational and were not specific to the teaching of art and design subjects, thus being inadequate and difficult to apply in real art and design classroom practice. Due to numerous motivational and material challenges encountered TEs in addition to limited awareness of the relationship between technology, pedagogy and content knowledge, TEs can only occasionally use digital technologies in limited creative ways (basic use) to teach in A&D classrooms. ; Hovedmålet med denne kvalitative casestudien er å bidra med innsikt i lærerutdannernes digitale kompetanse for undervisning i kunst- og designfag i lærerutdanningsinstitusjoner i Uganda. Studien benyttet semistrukturerte intervjuer og ikke-deltakende observasjon for å innhente kvalitative data fra lærerutdannere, lærerstudenter og studieledere ved to lærerutdanningsinstitusjoner i Uganda. På basis av disse dataene belyser denne studien følgende forskningsspørsmål: 1. På hvilke måter bruker lærerutdannere digital teknologi når de underviser i kunst- og designfag i Uganda? 2. Hvordan utvikler lærerutdannere i kunst- og designfag sin digitale kompetanse i lærerutdanningsinstitusjoner i Uganda? 3. Hvilke utfordringer møter lærerutdannere når de underviser kunst- og designfag med digital teknologi i Uganda? Med utgangspunkt i teoretiske begreper fra van Dijk (2005), Mishra og Koehler (2006) ble data analysert og presentert i henhold til de tre forskningsspørsmålene og dokumentert i tre forskningsartikler (referert til i denne avhandlingen som henholdsvis artikkel I, II og III), som hver adresserer ett av forskningsspørsmålene. Funnene i artikkel I viser at lærerutdannere av og til bruker digital teknologi til å undervise i kunst- og designfag. Bruken kan karakteriseres som enkel og lite kreativ. Dette kan tilskrives utilstrekkelig tilgang til digitale ressurser (maskinvare, programvare og internett), begrenset digital kompetanse og begrenset kunnskap om pedagogisk bruk av digital teknologi i kunst- og designfag. Funnene viser videre lærerutdannernes begrensede bevissthet om forholdet mellom teknologisk-, pedagogisk- og fagkunnskap (TPACK) i undervisningen i kunst og designfag. Mangelen på TPACK blant lærerutdannere forklarer noe av den begrensede kreative bruken av digital teknologi i undervisningen i kunst- og designfag i Ugandas lærerutdanningsinstitusjoner. Funnene i artikkel II indikerer at lærerutdannere i kunst- og designfag utvikler digital kompetanse gjennom både formelle og uformelle tilnærminger. De formelle tilnærmingene inkluderer kompetanse tilegnet gjennom den grunnleggende lærerutdanningen og gjennom etter- og videreutdanning, mens uformelle tilnærminger inkluderer kollegasamarbeid, egenlæring og repetisjon. Studien viser at den digitale kompetanse som lærerne oppnådd gjennom formelle tilnærminger ikke var knyttet spesifikt til undervisningen i kunst- og designfag, noe som gjorde det utfordrende og vanskelig å bruke denne kompetansen i klasseromspraksis. Derimot viser funnene i denne studiet antyder at lærerutdannere utvikler en begrenset digital kompetanse, nødvendig for praktisk bruk i klasserommet, gjennom uformelle tilnærminger. Funnene i artikkel III avslører en rekke motivasjonsutfordringer (knyttet til negative holdninger, mangel på selvtillit, mangel på tid, begrenset digital kompetanse og frykt for tap av faglig kreativitet) i tillegg til utfordringer knyttet til materiell tilgang, slik som; tilstrekkelig tilgang til digital teknologi, upålitelig strømforsyning, teknologiske feil og tilstrekkelig teknisk støtte. Artikkel III diskuterer videre alternative strategier som brukes av lærerutdannere under slike forhold, slik som kollegastøtte, kursvirksomhet, improvisasjon, lobbyvirksomhet for teknisk og økonomisk støtte, og bruk av egne digitale verktøy (BYOD-Bring Your Own Device) for å takle eksisterende utfordringer. Generelt sett, viser funnene i denne studien at lærerutdannernes digitale kompetanse forblir operasjonell og ikke fagspesifikk for undervisningen i kunst- og designfag, og dermed er utilstrekkelig og begrenset for anvendelse praktisk undervisning i kunst- og designfag. På grunn av lærernes motivasjonsmessige og materielle utfordringer, i tillegg til begrenset bevissthet om forholdet mellom teknologisk-, pedagogisk- og fagkunnskap, viser denne studiet at læreutdannere bruker digital teknologi på en svært enkel og lite kreativ måte i deres undervisning i kunst- og designfag i Uganda. ; The Norwegian Government (NORAD) provided a PhD Scholarship through the NORHED, Masters in Vocational Pedagogy Project, Kyambogo University, Uganda. ; publishedVersion

Histories of statistics and quantification have demonstrated that systems of statistical knowledge participate in the construction of the objects that are measured. However, the pace, purpose, and scope of quantification in state bureaucracy have expanded greatly over the past decades, fuelled by (neoliberal) societal trends that have given the social phenomenon of quantification a central place in political discussions and in the public sphere. This is particularly the case in the field of education. In this article, we ask what is at stake in state bureaucracy, professional practice, and individual pupils as quantification increasingly permeates the education field. We call for a theoretical renewal in order to understand quantification as a social phenomenon in education. We propose a sociology-of-knowledge approach to the phenomenon, drawing on different theoretical traditions in the sociology of knowledge in France (Alain Desrosi eres and Laurent Th evenot), England (Barry Barnes and Donald MacKenzie), and Canada (Ian Hacking), and argue that the ongoing quantification practice at different levels of the education system can be understood as cultural processes of self-fulfilling prophecies. ; publishedVersion

Two case studies in outdoor learning from Norway and Scotland illustrate ways in which communities can help in developing and shaping their Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) services and schools. Presented in their geographical and historical context, including a descriptive analysis of their preschool and education systems, it is argued that their creative use of rural environments in the learning of young children illustrate the power of partnership with communities. However, creative "democratic experimentalism" of this kind requires flexibility within the curriculum and a supportive educational culture. ; publishedVersion

Master´s thesis in English (EN501) ; This thesis examines how American politics is taught in upper secondary schools in Norway, with special attention on VG3 English Social Studies. The thesis investigates the connection between history and politics through time and how history can be beneficial for understanding the present situation. In addition, the thesis examines the subject curriculum for VG1 and VG3 English in Norway to find how American politics is presented. Empirical evidence was collected through textbook analyses and interviews with both authors and teachers of English. The data retrieved from the analyses and interviews were used to answer three research questions: (1) How is American politics taught in upper-secondary schools in Norway, with primary focus on VG3 English Social Studies?, (2) How can history be used in American politics teaching? And (3) What is focused on when teaching American politics? Results from the study suggest that textbooks might affect the teaching of politics and that history is being used to make the pupils understand why the US is the way it is and why the Americans have the mindsets and culture they have. In addition, the study found that the implementation of the new curriculum can lead to some problems in relation to teacher students and the exams.

Teachers' professional digital competence (PDC) is of increasing importance in classrooms in the majority of EU countries. Norway is one of the countries that has been exposed to a strong top-down implementation of information and communication technology in education. However, despite national efforts, practitioners in the education system do not seem to work in line with the given policy. There is therefore a gap between the micro and macro levels, necessitating the need for a closer exploration of the issue. We have conducted a quantitative study of teacher educators and their students in Northern Norway ( N = 112). Amongst the staff, professional attitudes have a stronger impact than PDC regarding the extent of the educational use of digital tools, whereas amongst students, PDC has a stronger influence. These results are interpreted using Argyris and Schön's theory of action in learning organisations.

This is a study of Norwegian and New Zealand teacher educators' attitudes and understandings of what constitutes learning in schools. Excerpts of curriculum differences between the countries were used as catalysts to gain insight into teacher educators' espoused theories regarding their understanding of learning, using examples of skill-based and competency-based perspectives on learning. This article describes reactions from Norwegian and New Zealand teacher educators when presented with examples of these two different educational cultures. The majority of both the Norwegian and the New Zealand teacher educators express a critical stance towards a skill-based perspective when asked about the matter. A concern regarding political pressure as an agent of change in educational systems was explicit in both countries. Norway appears to be politically governed top down to a greater degree than New Zealand, and this article examines whether the top-down governing of education can lead to discrepancies between formal curriculum, perceived curriculum, and operationalised curriculum. The findings indicate that such discrepancies exist among Norwegian teacher educators. The results show that inconsistencies of this nature could affect teacher educators' motivation for their profession and can be perceived to undermine the trust that practitioners have in their professional and pedagogical competencies. This article contributes to broadening the understanding of how the governing of education could affect practitioners at a time of political pressure and requirements for measurable results.

Children and adolescents who have experienced traumatic events demonstrate a variety of posttraumatic symptoms, including recurrent nightmares, as well as adverse reactions in the school setting. The current study examined nightmare symptoms, posttraumatic stress, sleep disturbance, and self- and teacher-reported school functioning of 64 youths in the Gaza Strip, ages 12 to 16, who have lived through three wars and experience ongoing conflict and political insecurity. Students were treatment-seeking for sleep-problems and reported, on average, five nightmares per week for an average of three years, with concomitant disrupted sleep, fear of going to sleep, and not feeling rested in the morning. Both teachers and students reported that participants exhibited impaired academic functioning and daytime sleepiness. The content of the students' nightmares demonstrated frightening themes of being under attack and loss of self-efficacy/control; threat levels were high, and almost 60% included the threat of death. Approximately half of the nightmares included surreal elements in addition to more realistic scenes of violence. Participants in the study demonstrated substantial posttraumatic sleep problems with intensely distressing, frequent and chronic nightmares, andnightmare symptoms were associated with impairment in school functioning. Given the disruptive and distressing nature of these students' nightmare disturbance, we suggest that increasing self-efficacy in relation to the experience of recurrent nightmares may be a good point of intervention with these recurrently traumatized youth. Thus, increasing the understanding of students' nightmare symptoms may lead to ameliorating the suffering of youths in war zones and may have positive effects on their school functioning.

The meaning of democratic participation in Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) remains vague and difficult to implement. Thus, the aim of this paper is to contribute to this gap of knowledge by shed light on the meaning of democratic participation in relation to the best interests of the child, by analysing General Comment No. 14 (2013). The research uses theories on democracy in ECEC to discuss the results (Biesta, 2014, 2015; Moss, 2007, 2011; Pettersvold, 2013; Einarsdottir, Purola, Johansson, Broström, & Emilson, 2015). The study investigates how key terms ( rights, participation, unity/collective, equality, influence and responsibility ) relate to democratic participation. Findings indicate that these terms are used to align with ideas about the "best interests of the child". Furthermore, the study identified specific groups of children who can be in vulnerable situations and their explicit right to express their views and to influence decisions affecting them in ECEC institutions. I therefore argue that understanding democracy in ECEC must focus on inclusion of children who can be in vulnerable situations because this is in the best interests of the child.

The Norwegian national curricula for primary and secondary education are currently undergoing reforms, which will be implemented from 2020. The underlying documents regarding the reform are studied in this article, and conclude that learners should be provided with beneficial conditions to develop values and knowledge to manage their lives well. An essential notion is 'deep learning' whose implication seems to be acquisition of more in-depth knowledge and understanding of subject areas. The present article argues that learning is about making connections, whether it be noticing connections between isolated subject areas, or, perhaps, between theoretical concepts and practical tasks. Further, the article argues that interdisciplinary approaches extend knowledge as they typically work across subject areas and support learners in discovering disciplinary connections. Claims are made that interdisciplinary strategies have the capacities to facilitate various learning styles, motivation and variation. Such facilitations are required in education that is democratic and which targets all learners. Hence, the article argues that interdisciplinarity and deep learning are concepts that work together, and in which critical thinking and creativity are core elements. The argumentation is based on the four official documents NOU 2014:7, NOU 2015:8, Report to the Storting 28, The Standing Committee on Education, Research and Church Affairs' recommendation to the Storting 19 S, as well as, data findings discussed in a master study which discusses teachers' perceptions of interdisciplinarity and learning.

The overarching research question of this extended abstract is: How is oracy (defined as speaking and listening competence) perceived in Norwegian schools? This extended abstract attempts to articulate and explore oracy in Norwegian schools through a mixed methods study based on teachers' and students' perceptions. The work with oracy in schools can be placed within the research field of oracy and rhetoric in the educational context. Additionally, this study's findings raise questions of concerns for future curriculum development as it relates to oracy as a key competence tied to health, critical thinking, Bildung, citizenship and democracy. The question under investigation is researched through three sub-studies all of which aim to identify what oracy entails for teachers and students in the school setting. The first study is a quantitative examination of teachers' cross-disciplinary oracy construct applied for the mandatory final oral exam assessment at the end of 10th grade. An instrument, "SNAKK," was developed to survey 1,033/495 teachers on what they assess for the oral exam. The second study is a qualitative sub-study that scrutinizes how oracy is conceptualized, taught, and assessed through a rhetorical topos analysis of semi-structured interviews with nine teachers. The last sub-study, which is also of a qualitative design, aims to reveal the oracy construct in and across subjects as well as workings with oracy based on the student perspective through a rhetorical topos analysis of 6 focus interviews with 22 tenth-grade students. In the three sub-studies, the usage and the meaning-making of the term oracy is scrutinized. The findings suggest that even though the teachers may assess oracy differently in different disciplines, there exists an overarching pattern for oracy across disciplines, which may be embedded in the teachers' everyday practices and discipline traditions. The oracy construct valued in the educational setting emphasizes logos, but the ethos and pathos dimensions are also important aspects. The work with oracy in Norwegian schools appears to lack a metalanguage and systematic teaching structure, leading students to rely on their common knowledge when demonstrating their oracy competence. Due to the lack of a defined oracy construct, which results in inequities in the assessment of students, the Norwegian education system shows signs of being at risk for reproducing social inequalities. It is argued that rhetoric as a metalanguage for oracy should be incorporated into the everyday work with oracy in the Norwegian classroom as well as in teacher education. In the discussion chapter of this thesis, the findings of the three sub-studies are examined through didactical lenses, existing research in the field of oracy, and an Aristotelian view of knowledge. This work was completed at OsloMet - Oslo Metropolitan University. ; Det overordnede forskningsspørsmålet til denne avhandlingen er: Hvordan oppfattes muntlighet (definert som tale- og lyttekompetanse) i norsk skole? I undersøkelsen er det blitt utforsket og artikulert hva muntlighet i norske skole kan være. Det har skjedd gjennom kvantitative og kvalitative empiriske undersøkelser basert på læreres og elevers erfaringsbaserte forståelser. Dette arbeidet om muntlighet i skolen kan plasseres innenfor forskningsfelt som «muntlighet» og «retorikk» med en pedagogisk forankring. I tillegg reiser funnene fra denne studien relevante spørsmål for fremtidig læreplanutvikling når det gjelder muntlighet som en grunnleggendekompetanse, knyttet til livsmestring, kritisk tenkning, danning, medborgerskap og demokrati. Spørsmålet som undersøkes er forsket på gjennom tre delundersøkelser. De har alle tre som mål å identifisere hva muntlighet innebærer for lærere og elever i skolen. Den første studien er en kvantitativ undersøkelse av hva lærere vektlegger når de setter karakter på muntlig eksamen på slutten av 10. klasse i ulike fag. Et instrument, "SNAKK," ble utviklet for å kartlegge 1 033/495 lærere om hva de vurderer til muntlig eksamen. Den andre studien er en kvalitativ delundersøkelse som gransker hvordan muntlighet blir forstått, undervist og vurdert av lærere. Det skjer ved hjelp av en retorisk toposanalyse av semistrukturerte intervjuer av ni lærere. Den siste delstudien, som også har et kvalitativt design, tar sikte på å avsløre muntlighets-konstruktet i og på tvers av fag, samt å forstå arbeidet og vurderingen av muntlighet fra et elevperspektiv. Det er gjort ved hjelp av en retorisk toposanalyse av 6 fokusintervjuer med 22 elever i tiende klasse. De tre delstudiene undersøker bruken, meningsdannelsen og vurderingen av muntlighet i norsk skole. Funnene antyder at selv om lærerne kan vurdere muntlighet forskjellig i ulike fag, eksisterer det et overordnet mønster for muntlighet på tvers av fag, noe som kan være sedvaneoverført i lærernes hverdagspraksis og fagtradisjoner. Muntlighets konstruktet som er verdsatt i skolen har størst vekt på innholds dimensjonen (logos). Men framvisning av personlig karakter (etos) og mottakerbevissthet (patos) er også viktige deler av det muntlige. Undersøkelsen viser at arbeidet med muntlighet i norske skole ser ut til å mangle et metaspråk. Lærerne underviser ikke på en systematiske måte, noe som gjør at elevene bruker sin allmennkunnskap når de legger frem muntlig. Mangelen på et definert muntlighets konstrukt, resulterer også i ulikheter i lærernes vurderingspraksis av elevenes muntlige presentasjoner. Derfor står det norske utdanningssystemet i fare for å reprodusere sosiale ulikheter. I undersøkelsen argumenteres det for at retorikk som metaspråk bør innarbeides i det daglige arbeidet med muntlighet i norske klasserom samt i lærerutdanningen. I diskusjonskapitlet blir funnene fra de tre delstudiene undersøkt gjennom didaktiske tilnærminger, eksisterende forskning på området, og et Aristotelisk syn på kunnskap. Doktorgradsarbeidet ble gjennomført ved Storbyuniversitetet i Oslo. ; publishedVersion