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This is an Accepted Manuscript of an article published by Taylor & Francis Group in Danish Journal of Archaeology on 20/12/2017, available online: http://www.tandfonline.com/10.1080/21662282.2017.1323992. ; This article focuses upon the delimitation between the separate farm units and the collectively exploited common lands ('allmenninger') in Southeastern Norway during Medieval times. In these commons, various kind of resources – like pastures, woodland and fisheries – were accessible for exploitation by a majority of farmers in the settlement community, but subject to more restrictions than the resources of the 'outlying fields' pertaining to the separate farms. While the majority of the farmers within the community preferred that the extension of the commons should be preserved for their convenience, two groups of farmers might appropriate parts of the original common land area: those cultivating farms bordering to the common area, and who might extend their separate farmland successively into the previous commonly held area, and landless people who wanted to establish new farms ('clearances') within the common land. The legislation was also double and ambiguous. On the one hand it stated that 'the commons [should] stay in the way they have been before'. On the other hand it was declared that a farmer establishing a farm as a new clearing in the commons should become the King's tenant and thus come under his protection. The processes behind the institutionalizing of boundaries between the commons and private farm properties are highlighted through an analysis of settlement development in two municipalities/parishes in Southeastern Norway.

This thesis analyses the degree of influence and loan in the secular legislation between AD 400 and 1350. It explores the legislation on the topics of inheritance and compensation for homicide in search of the transmission of law between geographical regions and over a timespan of several centuries, and investigates how secular legislation on the distribution of inheritance and on compensation for homicide was motivated. This wide perspective has adduced evidence of legal transmission between the legal cultures in Western Europe that are not traditionally compared. Medieval legal development was born out of the Roman legal tradition, but found its own way in the following centuries. Encounters between legal cultures in medieval Europe resulted in legal advisors being inspired by the same ideology, thus producing similar legal works. In the legislation on inheritance and homicide, this thesis demonstrates a range of shared concepts in the written laws. The similarities are found in legislation regarding the larger systems of the transfer of wealth as well as the details, such as the terminology and concepts regarding rules of inheritance and homicide. The value of this extensive survey is in its broaching of traditionally demarcated historic periods, as well as its thorough investigation of law material from a large region. Thus, the thesis contributes to the available research on medieval legislation at different points in time, and discusses how existing European law influenced other secular legislative authority, either directly or conceptually.

In the wake of the trade in ancient materials, several ethical and political issues arise that merit concern: The decimation of the cultural heritage of war-torn countries, proliferation of corruption, ideological connotations of orientalism, financial support of terrorism, and participation in networks involved in money laundering, weapon sales, human trafficking and drugs. Moreover, trafficking and trading also have a harmful effect on the fabric of academia itself. This study uses open sources to track the history of the private Schøyen Collection, and the researchers and public institutions that have worked with and supported the collector. Focussing on the public debates that evolved around the Buddhist manuscripts and other looted or illicitly obtained material from Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iraq, this article unravels strategies to whitewash Schøyen's and his research groups' activities. Numerous elements are familiar from the field of antiquities trafficking research and as such adds to the growing body of knowledge about illicit trade and collecting. A noteworthy element in the Schøyen case is Martin Schøyen and his partner's appeal to digital dissemination to divorce collections from their problematic provenance and history and circumvent contemporary ethical standards. Like paper publications, digital presentations contribute to the marketing and price formation of illicit objects. The Norwegian state's potential purchase of the entire Schøyen collection was promoted with the aid of digital dissemination of the collection hosted by public institutions. In the wake of the Schøyen case, it is evident that in spite of formal regulations to thwart antiquities trafficking, the continuation of the trade rests on the attitudes and practice of scholars and institutions. ; publishedVersion

What did the protestant reformations look like in the very north of Europe? How did the cultural, political and economic consequences of the religious change influence the relationship between Scandinavia, the British Isles and continental Europe? Various questions related to these main themes were the topics for discussions at the conference "Northern Reformations" in Tromsø, Norway, September 21–22, 2017. This Nordlit volume contains papers based on most of the conference contributions.

Source at: http://doi.org/10.17238/issn2221-2698.2017.27.117 ; The article focuses on Sámi history and historical methods. The main results and central aspects of Sámi history, in its relational context, are gone through. What effects and consequences — regarding both methodology and narrative styles — these aspects have had, and ought to have, for the processes of doing research on and writing Sámi history? The focus is on the politics of Sámi history and research. The issues, who is "allowed" to write Sámi history and the way Sámi research is demanded to stand in the service of different societal-cultural needs of the Sámi is dealt with. This expectation of applicability concerns Sámi history in general, and the more delimited efforts of presenting situated accounts of Sámi cultural practices, traditions and experience with relations to other folk groups. Finally, methodological considerations and recommendations of Sámi history are presented, in which a number of methodological competences and in-depth usage of numerous source categories are called for.

The papers 1-4 of this thesis are not available in Munin. Paper 1: Jones, M. K.: "European Perceptions of Spitsbergen, 1895-1900". Available in (eds.) Kruse, A., Graves, P.: Images and Imaginations: Perspectives on Britain and Scandinavia. Lockharton Press, Edinburgh 2007: 89-110. ISBN: 1874665028. Paper 2: Jones, M. K.: "From explorer to expert: Sir William Martin Conway's 'delightful sense of something accomplished". Available in Polar Record 2014, 50(3): 319-329. Paper 3: Jones, M. K.: "Thematic and bibliometric analysis of articles about Spitsbergen (Svalbard) in science periodicals, 1905-1914". (Manuscript). Paper 4: Jones, M. K.: "Charles Rabot's Arctic idée fixe: Spitsbergen coverage in La Géographie, 1900-1920". Available in The Polar Journal 2012, 2(2):274-290. ; Scientific texts relating to Spitsbergen (Svalbard) published between 1895 and 1920, during the final quarter-century before Norway obtained sovereignty of this Arctic archipelago, relate their authors' scientific findings, but in many instances their very existence, their language of publication, their author's nationality and their country of publication also serve to illustrate their historical and geopolitical significance, both as individual texts and as a cumulative literary canon. A published history of the region during this period, as well as the compilation of Spitsbergen bibliographies in Britain, Norway, Sweden and Russia, signifies its increasing status in international terms. A number of individuals, including British explorer Sir William Martin Conway, French geographical journal editor Charles Rabot and Norwegian geologist Adolf Hoel, embodied power, influence and control in their persuasive attempts – along with many other authors who constituted what has been coined the Spitsbergen Literature Lobby – to influence the outcome of the Spitsbergen Question, determining the region's future sovereignty in the aftermath of the Great War. Five thesis articles examine the textual shaping of Spitsbergen, both in terms of which texts were published and what the publications were intended to portray. This bibliometric approach to history has uncovered interesting patterns of publication previously unsuspected, but the potential also exists, now and in the future, to use this new historiographical approach as a means to (re)examine the historical, political and cultural perspectives of the region.

The Second World War had a great impact on. For Norwegians, the War contributed to create a national identity, based on a shared oppression from a military invasion and resistance. Because of the war, many people fled to Sweden. Most of those refugees needed help from border pilots. In some areas Sámi border pilots was important because they knew the area very well indeed. Some of them were closely related to Sámi families in Sweden This thesis is a study what both Norwegian and Sámi border pilots did, who they were, where they did it and why they did it. It is also about how the public treated Sámi border pilots after the war. It covers the areas from Saltdal in the south to Tysfjord to the north. The thesis is based on interviews, books, articles and articles from local yearbooks in those four areas. In the end, many border pilots helped refugees because they felt it was the right thing to do. It was organised in such a way that a lot of people helped. People helped with food, clothes and shelter. Sometimes refugees came to them asking for help, but most of the times there were people picking up the refugees and then giving the refugees to the border pilots. Turning the refugees away would reduce their chances of fleeing to Sweden and if they did not receive help, they could be caught by German authorities. After the War, the Sámi border pilots were charged with treason, although the case was later dismissed, but because the way they were treated and accused, they became ashamed of what they had done. It was not until 2005, 70 years after the war ended, when the King apologised for the treatment the Sámi border pilots received after the war. It has taken a long time and a lot of effort to try to tell their stories and to fix the injustice that they received.

Master´s thesis in English (EN501). ; This thesis examines how politics became identity and how politicized identities are shaping contemporary American politics. Identity as a political concept in the Western sphere evolved by virtue of our human thymotic desire to be recognized and dignified by other people. Identity as a political phenomenon rests on the belief of individuals and their surrounding society that there exists a true inner self in all of us that is both entitled to and worthy of recognition and dignity. The struggle to have that true inner self recognized was inaugurated by Martin Luther's reconnaissance of the inner chambers of the self and moved to the social and political sphere through the works of among others. Rousseau, Kant and Hegel. Identity politics is the collectivized and organized endeavor of groups, bound together by their social identity. It is a political strategy that aims to improve and widen the circle of groups enjoying social justice. However, identity politics' contemporary characteristics are negating its initial aims by demanding recognition and dignity based on restrictive and ascriptive traits. This thesis aims to converge Social Identity Theory, Intergroup Emotion Theory,and Moral Foundation Theory to examine how and why the politics of identity is such a salient concept in contemporary American politics. This will build a structural framework were the relevance of the politics of identity will be discussed in relation to contemporary American politics and the political rise of Donald Trump.

The thesis is devoted to the portrayal of the Russian Revolution of 1917 in the Norwegian labor movement in the period 1915—1923. The main source of the analysis is the editorials of the newspaper Social-Demokraten. The newspaper was the print organ of the Norwegian Labor Party and had three editors in the studied period, namely Jacob Vidnes, Olav Scheflo, and Martin Tranmæl. The author analyzes the attitudes expressed to the Russian Revolution and revolutionary means, examines how the influence of the Russian Revolution manifested itself in the Social-Demokraten's editorials, as well as how the portrayal of the Russian Revolution was changing and reshaping under the editorship of the three editors. The conceptual framework for the thesis is the self / other relations, which is applied to comprehend why the Norwegian labor movement, unlike the Russian Bolsheviks, chose the peaceful development. ; Key words: the Norwegian Labor Party, the Norwegian labor movement, the Social-Demokraten, the Russian Revolution, 1917, self / other.

This thesis constitutes a study of Russian Sámi representation in Russian and pan-Sámi politics during the period 1992-2014. It contributes to the study of Sámi political history by exploring the systems for Russian Sámi representation that have been established and disestablished during the period under analysis, and the conflicts that have taken place over the organization of Russian Sámi representation. The thesis takes an interest in analysing the degree of representativeness inherent in various models for Russian Sámi representation, and the effect of pan-Sámi networking on Russian Sámi politics. By addressing this task, the thesis furthermore serves the function of accounting for the background, establishment, and conflicts surrounding the movement for a Russian Sámi Parliament that appeared during the period under analysis. The thesis is article-based, consisting of four articles and an introductory/summary section. INTRODUCTORY/SUMMARY SECTION: The introductory/summary section begins with an introduction of the subject of study, clarifies some key categories and concepts, and introduces the concretized research questions: "Which mechanisms for Russian Sámi representation on the Russian arena and pan-Sámi arena were established and discontinued 1992-2014, and how representative can these be considered as having been?" and "What were the main changes and continuities in Russian Sámi representation 1992-2014 and how can these be explained? How were developments in Russian Sámi representation in Russia affected by Russian Sámi participation in pan-Sámi networks?". The ensuing chapters address issues of historiography, theory, methodology, and ethics, and briefly presents the individual thesis articles. Following this, the thesis summarizes findings from the articles in the form of a chronological narrative, that also incorporates data and analysis not present in the articles. Historical background to the period 1992-2014 is presented, as is necessary context information about general developments in Russian politics and Nordic Sámi discourses during the period under analysis. Subsequently, developments in structures for Russian Sámi representation at the pan-Sámi and Russian level 1992-2014 are accounted for, and said structures' degrees of representativeness are given comment. The period 1992-2006 sees the full and equal integration of the Russian Sámi into the Sámi Council (from 1992) and the Barents WGIP (est. 1993), their phasing out from the Nordic Sámi Convention process during the 1990s, and their less than equal inclusion in the Sámi Parliamentary Council (est. 2000). In Murmansk Region, the same period is characterized by weak institutionalization of indigenous governance and an absence of formalized representation structures for the Sámi. Two initiatives for the establishment of a Russian Sámediggi occur during this period. Following this, developments 2006-2014 are covered. This period sees the establishment of three official councils for Sámi representation in Russia: the Coordination Council (2006-08), the Council of Representatives (2009 - ), and the Sám' Sobbar (2014 - ). Simultaneously, the first movement for a Russian Sámi Parliament movement emerges in 2007, uniting some actors in Russian Sámi civil society and dividing others. In the period, two councils are created through support of this movement: SUPS (2008-2010) and Kuèllnègk njoark sám' sobbar (2010), the latter being referred to by the movement as a Russian Sámi Parliament. The thesis accounts for how the Kuèllnègk njoark sám' sobbar seeks recognition both at the pan-Sámi level and in Murmansk Region, and the effects of this. Finally, the introductory/summary section presents events in 2014 and effects of these that were not covered in the thesis articles. The section concludes with a discussion on change and continuity, and the effect of pan-Sámi networking on Russian Sámi representation. THESIS ARTICLES: Article I "Need and Misery in the Eastern Periphery: Nordic Sámi Media Debate on the Kola Sámi" (2011) critically discusses Nordic Sámi media discourses on the Russian Sámi, 1992-2009. Article II "The Iron Curtain through Sápmi. Pan-Sámi Politics, Nordic Cooperation and the Russian Sámi" (2013) investigates the degree of equal representation given to the Russian Sámi in central pan-Sámi projects and structures. Article III "Who Shall Represent the Sámi? Indigenous Governance in Murmansk Region and the Nordic Sámi Parliament Model" (2015) accounts for the development of structures for indigenous governance and representation established by Murmansk Region 1992-2014, and the Russian Sámi Parliament movement. Article IV "Two Centuries of Russian Sámi Policy. Arrangements for Autonomy and Participation Seen in Light of Imperial, Soviet and Federal Indigenous Minority Policy 1822–2014" (2015) accounts for long lines in Russian indigenous policy, going beyond the thesis' period of analysis 1992-2014 and discussing the historical experiences of the Russian Sámi in light of these.

This is an Accepted Manuscript of an article published by Taylor & Francis in Cultural and Social History on 13 Apr 2019, available online: http://www.tandfonline.com/ https://doi.org/10.1080/14780038.2019.1595871 . ; This article combines History (the discipline) research with Inter national Relations (sub-discipline of Political Science, my point of departure) for transnational studies research on long-term develop- ments of transnational professional relations between the USA/ Europe and the Middle East and East Asia through missionary uni- versities. American Protestant and French Catholic missionaries were important transnational intellectuals and professionals who founded universities in the late 1800s and early 1900s. These universities continue to educate generations of transnational professionals. The article seeks to contribute in particular to the transnational studies dimension of International Relations drawing on educational, social and cultural history.

The Norwegian-British-Swedish Antarctic Expedition (NBSX) was the first multilateral expedition to the Antarctic regions and marked the beginning of an era of collaboration in Antarctic policy. Envisioned by Hans Wilhelmsson Ahlmann, as a means to expand his research into global melting and glacial retreat into the Southern hemisphere, and planned by the Norwegian Polar Institute under Harald Ulrik Sverdrup, it set off to the Dronning Maud Land in 1949 and returned home in 1952. While stationed in the Antarctic territory claimed by Norway, the crew led by John Giæver set up their basecamp "Maudheim" and performed plethora of scientific experiments and surveys. In the politically fraught post-war period, motives other than collaboration and science were pushed back in order not to stir smouldering conflict. This thesis seeks to disentangle and illuminate the tightly interwoven web of motives that drove the expedition into being. It tightly follows the expedition from its conception, throughout the laborious planning and funding process, it's set-off and return and aftermath. The reader will see that while scientific discovery and knowledge seeking was taking up a primary role in the minds of many of its "fathers", other motives, such as severity in the Arctic, access to weather data, whaling grounds and resources as well as military training and territorial control were driving factors in the realisation (and especially the funding) of the NBSX. Furthermore, it is shown how the planning and execution of the expedition became the driving factor for the establishment of the Norwegian Polar Institute and, simultaneously, its first gauge of efficiency.

In spring 1926 the Institute for Comparative Research in Human Culture in Norway appointed Fridtjof Nansen as project leader of a scientific expedition to the Kola Peninsula for comparative study of its indigenous population. Nansen himself worked out the plan of the expedition. According to the plan, it was a Norwegian expedition with international participants: Four Norwegians, two Finns, two Russians, one Swede and one American. Under these conditions, the expedition got the financial support of the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial. The main difficulty of the project was that the expedition had to take place on the territory of the newly-built Soviet state. In view of this, when appointing Nansen as leader, one was hoping that his authority and friendly relationship with the Soviet government would help to solve foreseeable problems. Nevertheless, despite all efforts, Nansen was refused by the Soviet government, and the expedition was not realised. The present article is based on previously unknown materials found in Russian archives and highlights the way in which the Soviet side dealt with the issue of Nansen's expedition. Several newly found documents have been analysed, including Nansen's letter to Čičerin, the project description made by Nansen and then corrected for the Soviet side, and several Soviet documents classified as secret.

Master i flerkulturell og internasjonal utdanning ; The aim of this study is to investigate the narrations of past and present among students and professors of social science and history at an Israeli university in Jerusalem. Moreover, the goal is to address the perceived effect and value of encounters between Palestinian and Israeli youth on the university campus. The fieldwork was conducted in Palestine and Israel from August to October 2014. During the fieldwork, 15 semi-structured interviews were carried out with 17 informants – 14 students and 3 professors. This study suggests that the school system has the ability to influence relations between conflicting parts in negative and positive ways. The study further argues that history teaching effects the construction of Palestinian and Israeli social identities, and can thus inflame the conflict by presenting negative and biased images of the other group. Psychological barriers among individuals in Israel and Palestine are crucial for the understanding of the deep-rooted mechanisms in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. By offering different, and multiple narratives of Israel and Palestine, the school system and the academia have the potential to play a vital role in the achieving sustainable solution to the conflict. Findings of the study indicate that the university to a larger extent than primary education presents a variety of narratives of the Israeli and Palestinian past and present. Findings further show that the university avoids presentations of contested political issues. Thus, this seems to be an obstacle and challenge concerning the presence of the Palestinian narrative. The majority of the informants said that the university represented the first time when they could interact with members of the other group in an everyday setting. The study suggests that the encounters between Israeli and Palestinian students at the university can lead to an adjustment of prejudices and negative images of the other. Experiences from a dialogue group for Israeli and Palestinian students organised by the university, show that the university have the potential enabling fruitful encounters between the two groups. Essential for positive outcomes of dialogue seems to be that discrepancies in power relations and social barriers are addressed and discussed during the encounters. However, the dialogue group at the university represent the exceptions rather than the rule at the university. This study argues that the university has the potential to do more to reduce psychological barriers in the conflictual terrain between Israeli and Palestinian students.

This dissertation is a comparative study of Sámi and Norwegian family living arrangements, explored from the perspective of the elderly and their co-residing behaviour with an own adult child. Up until 1875 nearly two-thirds of all elderly Sámi resided with an own adult child, 10 percentage points lower among Norwegians. In 1900, fewer than half of the elderly lived together with an own adult child. The change happened in the Sámi as well as in the Norwegian population, however it was most pronounced among the Sámi. The change was primarily characterized by a decline in the number of married sons staying in their parental homes, and the decline was persistent in all economic sectors. What we see is an increase in dependent elderly people living as lodgers in households of supposedly non-relatives. A focus on household economy has revealed that intergenerational co-residence was positively associated with an occupation in farming, or combined fishing and farming, compared with an occupation in fishing. The association between political economy and intergenerational co-residence focuses on the effects of legal rules governing inheritance. Unlike the Norwegian system that benefitted the oldest son, the youngest son's right has been determined as a Sámi system. Thus, differences in intergenerational co-residence between Norwegians and the Sámi, at least up until 1875, might therefore be explained by differences in inheritance practice. The dissertation further argues that the decline in intergenerational co-residence between 1875 and 1900 may be explained by young men's increased opportunities to take on different occupations, and for some this may have been more attractive than staying at home. Secondly, we know that the Norwegian state increased its efforts to assimilate the Sámi population into Norwegian law and culture. Along with this assimilation process, we also see an increased interaction in the private sphere, e.g. interethnic marriages. Thus, as ethnic differences in intergenerational co-residence had disappeared in 1900, the consequence was an approach towards a similar family system for the Sámi and the Norwegian population. ; Avhandlingen er en komparativ studie av hvordan den samiske og norske befolkningen organiserte sine familiehushold i perioden 1865 til 1900. Den metodiske innfallsvinkelen har vært å ta utgangspunkt i eldre personers samboerskap med egne voksne barn. Mot slutten av 1800-tallet endret husholdsstrukturen seg i Nord-Troms og Finnmark, og stadig færre eldre bodde sammen med egne voksne barn. Endringen viser at fram til 1875 bodde ca. 2/3 av alle eldre samer sammen med eget voksent barn. Nivået var 10 prosentpoeng lavere blant nordmenn. I 1900 var ikke bare de etniske forskjellene utvisket, færre enn halvparten av de eldre bodde i såkalt flergenerasjonshushold. Endringen skyldtes primært en nedgang i foreldres samboerskap med gifte sønner, og nedgangen skjedde uavhengig av økonomisk tilknytning. I økende grad finner vi eldre mennesker bosatt som losjerende i hushold der det familiære slektskap synes å ha vært fraværende. Ved å fokusere på husholdsøkonomi viser analysene at flergenerasjonshushold var sterkere forankret blant bønder og fiskerbønder enn blant fiskere. Frem til 1875 viser analysene at det samiske familiesystemet i høyere grad enn det norske var tilknyttet flergenerasjonshusholdet. Dette kan forklares ut i fra ulik praksis knyttet til eiendomsoverdragelse, hvor preferanse for yngste barn, fortrinnsvis yngste sønn, er tilskrevet en samisk tradisjon, ganske ulikt det norske systemet. Avhandlingen argumenterer for at nedgangen i flergenerasjonshusholdet etter 1875 kan forklares ved at unge menn i den perioden sto ovenfor flere yrkesvalg, og at det for enkelte må ha fortont seg som mer attraktivt å flytte et annet sted enn å bli værende på hjemplassen. Dernest vet vi at den norske stat strammet det politiske grepet i en prosess med å assimilere den samiske befolkningen til norsk språk og kultur. Parallelt med denne assimileringsprosessen ser vi en økt samhandling i den private sfæren, vist blant annet gjennom økt ekteskapsinngåelse på tvers av etniske grupper. Konsekvensene av både de økonomiske, politiske og sosiale strømningene ble en tilnærming mot et likt familiesystem i den samiske og norske befolkningen.