The ingredients used in animal feed are fundamentally important in terms of both the quality and safety of the resulting food products and for the potential human health impact associated with the animal-based food production chain (Sapkota et al., 2007). Feed analysis is an important topic in animal nutritional research and as a control: evaluation of feed quality and safety require a high number of analyses to be performed. Considering that feed science has progressively evolved, prompted by different factors such as the need to obtain validated and standardized methods of analysis, the analysis on feed should be a multi-analytical approach, in accordance with screening work conducted at different levels. For this reason new analytical laboratory instruments have been developed. Requirements for new analytical methods emphasize performance, sensitivity, reliability, speed, simplified use, low cost for high volume, and routine assays. The starting point of my PhD was a thorough review of the literature to trace the state of the art in, in vivo and in vitro models, review analytical methods used, and to critically analyze the advantages and disadvantages of different models and methodological approaches, from "wet chemistry" to modern analytical techniques and to in vitro approaches. This analysis showed clearly how the analytical approach is essential to evaluate feed and how farmers, researchers, industry and governments have been forced to give serious attention to animal feedstuff production process. New methods for evaluation of feed composition and safety have been developed. My PhD project focused on feed analysis using new analytical methods (image analysis and electronic nose), to ensure quality and safety of feed and animal origin products for human consumption. Aspects of quantification of quality and safety in real time with the objective of an instrumental response were obtained using techniques based on use of the senses, such as vision and smell, which represent rapid methods for screening and quality control feed.The research aim was to evaluate quality and safety of feed and pet food by thedevelopment and application of a multi analytical approach, as reported in the diagram below (Figure 1). In conclusion, the application of artificial senses in feed analysis can be considered an example of how science and engineering work effectively together. The image analysis and electronic nose represents new tools for rapid screening and quality control and as a support for decision making in the area of product quality. Chemometric tools are required for efficiently extracting qualitative or structural information from the wide volume of data collected. Image analysis allows, both in feed and pet food, the identification and characterization of products of animal origin (PAPs) so that morphometric descriptions of bone fragments can be used as possible markers in routine analysis. Electronic nose allows evaluation of the odour profile of pet foods, representing a promising and powerful tool able to provide immediate and satisfactory answers in complex matrices as pet food. Obviously, a legislative approach is an important issue to consider in a worldwide discussion regarding quality and safety of feed. A study was carried out to address some aspects concerning feed and food-related issues, providing an update of the current EU Regulation and Directives. To give the reader a rapid first approach to the topic of his interest, a synoptic presentation of all law related to the above-mentioned topics is given, along with the main points of each law, cited in conjunction with its effect on previous laws (replacement, modification, amendments, and main related acts). Results were used to create a database to manage the consolidation and updating of the legislative texts.
The electronic nose is an instrument that comprises an array of electronic chemical sensors and an appropriate pattern recognition system and capable of recognizing simple or complex volatile organic compounds' (VOCs) profiles associated to a product odour. The e-nose analysis of VOCs is of increasing interest as an analytical tool in many research areas, such as agricultural, food, pharmaceutical, biomedical, cosmetics, environmental, food, manufacturing, military. In the food industry, the electronic nose could represent a rapid and reliable tool for quality and safety assessment, freshness and shelf-life evaluation, authenticity assessment, foodstuff recognition, and process monitoring. This paper provides an overview of the applications of electronic nose in feed analysis and animal nutrition. Focus is placed on the applications as an analytical tool for quality control and management in the cereal and pet food industry. Further, this paper provides a critical outlook on the developments needed for transitioning of electronic nose use from research to industrial application in real contexts.
Una corretta nutrizione degli animali d'allevamento permette di ottenere un adeguato livello produttivo e di benessere delle specie allevate, assicurando nel contempo il raggiungimento di ottimali caratteristiche qualitative dei prodotti derivati, in modo da garantire al consumatore alimenti che soddisfino i requisiti richiesti di sicurezza e salubrità e presentino un adeguato valore nutrizionale. In questo contesto, l'applicazione di strategie nutrizionali, inclusa l'aggiunta di additivi, utilizzati per migliorare le caratteristiche nutrizionali dei mangimi, può svolgere un ruolo determinante nella moderna zootecnia e costituisce uno dei temi principali del quadro normativo dell'Unione Europea. Nel presente elaborato sono presentati quattro studi in vivo che valutano gli effetti della dieta sulle performance quanti qualitative di polli da carne e suini; in particolare si sono considerati alcuni interventi quali l'impiego di emulsionanti, di un estratto polpe di oliva ad elevato tenore di polifenoli e di un probiotico nell'intero ciclo produttivo del pollo da carne, mentre per quanto riguarda la specie suina, l'integrazione dell'estratto polpe di oliva ad elevato tenore di polifenoli ha riguardato il periodo compreso tra la fine della gestazione e lo svezzamento dei suinetti, considerati due dei momenti più delicati dell'allevamento di questa specie. La prima prova sperimentale prevedeva l'integrazione di un emulsionante sintetico a 1200 pulcini ROSS 308, equamente suddivisi in maschi e femmine e suddivisi in 4 gruppi costituiti da 12 recinti e 25 animali ciascuno. E' stato utilizzato un disegno sperimentale multifattoriale 2x2 che permette di confrontare il trattamento alimentare (C vs T) e il sesso. L'additivo è stato somministrato in dosi di 1g/kg dal giorno 0 al giorno 12, 0,75g/kg dal giorno 12 al giorno 22 e di 0,5g/kg dal giorno 22 al termine della prova (37 giorni per le femmine e 44 per i maschi). Durante lo svolgimento della prova sono stati valutati i principali parametri produttivi (PV, IMPG, FI e ICA), mentre in fase di macellazione sono stati prelevati campioni di sangue, di tessuto epatico e del contenuto cecale per le successive analisi; è stato inoltre prelevato il petto per la determinazione della resa della carcassa e della qualità della carne. I risultati hanno mostrato che la supplementazione con emulsionante ha aumentato il peso vivo al giorno 12 (P=0.02), l'incremento ponderale nel primo periodo (0-12 giorni; P=0.06) e la resa alla macellazione (P=0.02). Relativamente alla qualità della carne, il gruppo trattato ha mostrato un significativo incremento dell'indice b* (P0.05), la concentrazione di composti fenolici presenti nel fegato rispecchia il livello crescente di integrazione; in aggiunta, è stata osservata una modificazione non significativa dell'espressione dei geni sopra riportati. In conclusione, la somministrazione dell'additivo oggetto della prova ha apportato dei lievi benefici, che tuttavia appaiono interessanti considerando il breve ciclo produttivo dei polli da carne. La terza prova sperimentale ha previsto l'integrazione dell'estratto di polpe di oliva, oggetto della precedente prova, a 18 scrofe pluripare (fase 1), omogenee per età e ordine di parto, suddivise in due gruppi sperimentali di 9 soggetti ciascuno (controllo = C e trattato = T), per un periodo di circa 40 giorni (da circa due settimane prima della data prevista del parto al termine della lattazione). Il gruppo T ha ricevuto una dieta basale (C) addizionata con l'estratto di oliva in quantità di 1,25kg/ton. Al termine della lattazione (25d), tutti i suinetti nati (n=180) sono stati suddivisi in 4 gruppi sperimentali costituiti da 45 soggetti e 9 repliche ciascuno (fase 2), per una durata di 42 giorni. I suinetti appartenenti al gruppo Ctr-Ctr, provenivano da madri C e non hanno ricevuto l'estratto, il gruppo CtrT, proveniva da scrofe controllo, ma ha ricevuto l'additivo; il gruppo T-Ctr nato da madri T non ha ricevuto l'integrazione, infine i soggetti appartenenti al gruppo T-T, nati da scrofe trattate, hanno ricevuto l'estratto di oliva. La fase 2 è stata suddivisa in due periodi (prestarter 0-14d e starter 1542d) e le diete degli animali T sono state integrate con 5,0 e 2,5kg/ton di estratto di oliva, rispettivamente nel primo e nel secondo periodo. Durante la fase 1, sono stati raccolti dati relativi alla condizione corporea e ai parametri riproduttivi delle scrofe, nonché campioni di colostro, per determinare la concentrazione totale di polifenoli e la capacità antiossidante dello stesso. Durante lo svolgimento della fase 2 sono stati invece valutati i principali parametri produttivi dei suinetti (PV, IMPG, FI e ICA). I risultati relativi alla fase 1 non hanno mostrato differenze significative in seguito all'integrazione dell'estratto; tuttavia i parametri produttivi e riproduttivi del gruppo T sono risultati superiori. Per quanto riguarda le analisi del colostro, il potere antiossidante delle scrofe trattate era statisticamente più elevato (P=0.05) rispetto al gruppo C, sebbene la concentrazione di polifenoli totali non ha riportato variazioni significative tra i due gruppi (P>0.05). La fase 2 ha presentato dei risultati più interessanti; il gruppo T-Ctr ha mostrato un maggiore peso vivo al giorno 42 (P=0.03) e un maggior IMPG nel secondo periodo (14-42d) e come media complessiva (0-42d) (P=0.03 e P=0.05, rispettivamente) rispetto al gruppo Ctr-T. Inoltre, l'indice di conversione alimentare (ICA), la resa alimentare e la resa alla trasformazione del gruppo T-Ctr hanno riportato valori statisticamente significativi (P0.01) rispetto agli altri gruppi sperimentali. In conclusione, l'integrazione dell'estratto oggetto della prova ha mostrato i migliori risultati sulle performance dei suinetti, sottolineando l'importanza del latte materno come veicolo di sostanze funzionali e suggerendo possibili effetti benefici del composto d'interesse sulle condizioni generali di salute degli animali; tuttavia l'impiego di estratti vegetali in alimentazione animale presenta un quadro molto complesso, caratterizzato dalla presenza e dall'interazione di molti fattori differenti. La quarta prova sperimentale ha valutato gli effetti della somministrazione di un probiotico costituito da Lactobacillus farmaciminis e L. rhamnosus sulle performance produttive di 960 pulcini ROSS 308 di sesso maschile per una durata di 48 giorni. Gli animali sono stati suddivisi in 4 gruppi sperimentali, costituiti da 12 recinti e 20 soggetti ciascuno; i 3 gruppi trattati (T1, T2 e T3) erano alimentati con una dieta base (CTR) integrata con 600, 400 e 200g/ton di probiotico, rispettivamente. Durante lo svolgimento della prova sono stati valutati i principali parametri produttivi (PV, IMPG, FI e ICA); mentre in fase di macellazione è stato prelevato il petto per la determinazione della resa della carcassa. I risultati relativi alle performance di crescita non hanno evidenziato differenze significative per i parametri analizzati, inoltre, non è stata osservata alcuna differenza statistica per quanto riguarda i rilievi alla macellazione, resa e peso del petto (P>0.05). Per concludere, la somministrazione del probiotico oggetto della prova non ha modificato i parametri considerati, tuttavia non sono da escludere possibili effetti dell'additivo sulla modulazione della flora microbica intestinale e sulle proprietà qualitative delle carni. In tal senso, saranno necessari ulteriori e più approfonditi studi per analizzare le conseguenze sul metabolismo generale di animali a rapida crescita. Analizzando i risultati ottenuti nelle prove sperimentali, è possibile affermare che l'integrazione di sostanze ad azione benefica nell'alimentazione degli animali da reddito è in grado non solo di modificare in maniera significativa i principali parametri di crescita degli stessi e la qualità dei prodotti destinati al consumatore, ma anche di migliorare le condizioni generali di benessere e influenzare positivamente l'equilibrio intestinale degli stessi. ; Optimal animal nutrition allows adequate productive performance and correct welfare conditions of livestock species; moreover, it ensures animal's products with high-quality characteristics that meet safety and security requirements for the consumers and guarantees a suitable nutritional value. In this context, the application of nutritional strategies, including the supplementation of additives, used to improve feed nutrition, may play a significant role in livestock production; it also represents an important issue in the regulatory framework of the European Union. In this paper, four in vivo trials are presented to evaluate the dietary effects on the quali-quantitative performance of broiler chickens and pigs. In particular, the use of synthetic emulsifiers, a polyphenols-enriched olive pulp extract and a probiotic was considered in the whole production cycle of broiler chicken. Whereas, the polyphenol-enriched olive pulp extract was added in the diet of sows and piglets to investigate the positive effects of this supplementation in two critical moments of the productive system of this species: the peripartum of the sows and the weaning of piglets. In the first experimental trial, a total of 1200 one-day-old ROSS 308 broiler chicks were assigned to four experimental groups consisting of 15 pens with 25 birds per pen. A 2×2 factorial design was applied to compare the different dietary treatments [control diet (CTR) or diet supplemented with AVI-MUL TOP (AMT) at 1g/kg from d 0 to 12, 0.75g/kg from d 12 to 22 and 0.5g/kg from d 22 to 44] and gender. Growth performance (BW, ADG, FI and FCR) were determined on days 0, 12, 22, 37 and 44 for males. One female chick (day 37) and one male chick (day 44) from each pen were chosen on BW basis and slaughtered to collect blood, liver samples and caecum content and to determine the dressing and breast muscle percentages. AMT supplementation increased BW on day 12 (P=0.02), ADG from day 0 to 12 (P0.05) on the growth parameters and caecum microbiological analysis among the groups; while the dietary supplementation significantly improved the b* index (yellowness) of animal skin (P=0.003). The extraction and quantification of total polyphenols and the expression of some lipid metabolism related genes (PPARα, ATGL, ACACA, CPT-1, ACOX and FASN) were performed from hepatic samples. The hepatic concentration of phenolic compounds did not show any statistical differences (P>0.05) among the groups, although it reflects the supplementation level. No statistical differences were also found in the gene expression. In conclusion, the olive pulp extract showed minor benefits on the growth performances, which however appear interesting considering the short production cycle of these animals. The third experimental trial was divided into two phases to investigated the effects of the polyphenolsenriched olive pulp extract supplementation on the performance of sows and piglets. During phase 1, 18 multiparous sows, homogeneous by age and birth order, were assigned to two experimental groups of 9 animals each. The dietary treatment were control diet (C) or diet supplemented with 1.25kg/ton of olive pulp extract (T). The compound of interest was added to the diet for a period of about 40 days (from two weeks before the expected date of birth to the end of lactation). Body condition and reproductive parameters were analyzed and colostrum samples were collected to determine the total polyphenols concentration and the antioxidant activity. In phase 2, 180 newborn piglets, homogeneous by body weight, were assigned to four experimental groups consisting of 45 animals and 9 replicates each. The Ctr-Ctr piglets were born from control sows and did not receive the extract, the Ctr-T group was composed by control sow's piglets who received the compound; the T-Ctr piglets group was born from treated sows and they did not receive the olive pulp extract and the T-T group was composed by treated sow's piglets who received the extract. Phase 2 was divided into two periods (prestarter from d 0 to 14 and starter from d 15 to 42) and dietary treatments were control diet (Ctr) and diet supplemented with 5.0 and 2.5kg/ton of olive pulp extract (T) in the first and second period, respectively. Growth performance (BW, ADG, FI and FCR) were determined on days 0, 14 and 42. The supplementation did not show any significant differences (P>0.05) in phase 1; however, it was observed that the body condition and reproductive parameters of the treated animals were higher than the control group. The antioxidant activity of T sows was statistically higher (P=0.05), although the total polyphenol concentrations did not show significant variations (P>0.05) between the two groups. In phase 2, the T-Ctr group showed higher body weight at day 42 (P=0.03) and higher ADG during the second period (14-42d) and overall (0-42d) (P=0.03 and P=0.05, respectively) compared to the other groups. Moreover, FCR, carcass yield and transformation yield of the T-Ctr group were statistically significant (P≤0.01) compared to the other experimental groups. In conclusion, the supplementation of the compound of interest showed the best results on the piglets' performance, underlining the importance of milk as a vehicle of functional substances and suggesting possible beneficial effects on the general health conditions. In the fourth experimental trial, a total of 960 one-day-old ROSS 308 male broiler chicks were assigned to four experimental groups consisting of 12 pens with 20 animals per pen.The dietary treatments were control diet (CTR) and diet supplemented with 600, 400 and 200g/t of METALACT (T1, T2 and T3, respectively). The probiotic additive was composed by a mixture of Lactobacillus pharmacimis and L. rhamnosus and supplemented for a period of 48 days. Growth performance (BW, ADG, FI and FCR) were determined on days 0, 11, 22 and 48. At the end of the trial, one chick from each pen was chosen on BW basis and slaughtered to determine the dressing and breast muscle percentages. The METALACT supplementation did not showed any significant differences (P>0.05) on the growth parameters investigated. In conclusion, the probiotic did not modify the growth performance, but it is not possible to exclude possible beneficial effects on modulation of the microbial intestinal flora and on the qualitative properties of the meat. The overall results showed that the dietary supplementation of beneficial substances is not only able to significantly modify the animal's growth performance and the quality of the products, but it is also able to improve the general welfare conditions and the intestinal balance of the livestock species.
This paper reviews current knowledge on two feedstuffs, that is, insect meal and fish by-products, as alternatives to conventional animal protein sources. After an introductory part that highlights the need for sustainable development of animal production, the alternative protein sources are discussed. In particular, after providing some indications on their production and supply focussing on EU, a SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) analysis was performed to identify the key factors that could help or impair the development of both protein sources production sectors. Finally, future perspectives are presented. The use of processed animal proteins derived from insects in farmed fish feeding is recognised by the EU legislation that authorises the use of proteins from seven insect species and the allowed substrates to rear insects. Insects have several advantages in nutritional value and the amino acid composition of their proteins generally meet animal requirements for good growth and health. The SWOT analysis indicated that insect meals can be considered as feed functional ingredients with beneficial properties that depend on the insect species, rearing system adopted, and the substrate used for their growth. Insects are expected to be increasingly used as a replacement for conventional animal-derived proteins, especially in aquafeeds. In the section regarding fishery and aquaculture by-products, the potential use of raw materials obtained during seafood processing is discussed. Peptides and amino acids recovered from as hydrolysed proteins can be used in animal feeds to partially substitute conventional protein feedstuffs thus providing nutrients, bioactive compounds and feed additives for animals. The SWOT analysis identified opportunities and weaknesses. Both the alternative protein sources are promising alternative feed ingredients for livestock production.
The demand for aquafeed grown exponentially in the last decade and is expected to increase further in the coming years (FAO 2018). The wild fish used for the fish meal and oil, currently used in feed formulated for carnivorous species, will be used in human consumption and less available for aquaculture. Among the potential ingredients of future use in aquafeed, microalgae represent a promising matrix, as characterized by nutritional, nutraceuticals and immunostimulant properties ( Camacho-Rodríguez et al., 2017) . However the high production cost is a limiting factor for their use. The development of a microalgae-based biorefinery, able to use some by-products and agro-industrial waste to produce biomass would enable to limit the disposal costs sustained by the companies and to lower the production costs of the microalgae. The present research was undertaken to evaluate effect on growth response and fillet quality traits of sturgeon ( A. baerii) fed with two microalgae freeze-dried biomass Nannochloropsis gaditana and Scenedesmus almeriensis grown in Sinthetic Medium (SM) or in diluted Pig Manure (PM) and included in partial substitution of dietary fish meal and oil. Materials and methods Four complete diets were formulated to be grossly iso-proteic and iso-lipidic . A control diet (C ) was prepared using a blend of conventional animal and vegetal protein sources. The test diets coined respectively N. gaditana grown o n Synthetic Medium (NSM ), N. gaditana growno in pig manure (NPM), S. almeriensis grown on Synthetic Medium (SSM) and S. almeriensis grown on Pig Manure (SPM) were prepared by replacing the 10% of protein and lipid supplied by the blend of conventional protein and lipid-rich ingredients with microalgae . All the ingredients are mixed and pelleted by a cold extrusion process (70°C). Each diet were randomly assigned to tank and tested in triplicate according to a monofactorial design. Microalgae dried biomass and diets were analized microbiologically and verified for nutritional quality. To carried out the feeding trials 240 j uvenile A. baerii ( average 12.8±0.3g each ) were randomly allocated among 15 circular tanks (16 fish/tank) in RAS system under controlled rearing conditions (temperature, 19°C, DO 9.6 mg/L, artificial daylenght, 12h). Diets were offered in two daily meals with a fixed feed ratio (3 % body mass) over 6 weeks and each group were weighted every week under moderate anaesthesia. At the end of the trial, survival rate (%), Final Body Weight (FBW), Specific Growth Rate (SGR), Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR), Feed Intake (FI), were evaluated. Furthermore, nine fish per feed treatment were analized to determine the biometric indeces , fillet proximate composition and oxidation parameters (SOD, CAT, GPX, 8-isoprostanes). Data were subjected to ANOVA and differences tested by the Tukey's test (P 0.05). Discussion and Conclusion Very few data are available on the use of microalgae biomass in acipenserids diet . Spirulina meal integrated with plant oils was found to be a good alternative to replace fish oil in white ( A. transmontanus) and siberian ( A. baerii ) sturgeon diet (Palmegiano et al., 2008; 2002) . The data observed in this study confirm the potential use of the microalgae N. gaditana and S. almeriensis in the siberian sturgeon diet, in fact all the experimental diets tested, both based on microalgae grown o n SM and o n PM ensure a balanced and complete level of the nutrient s, suitable for the gr owth of sturgeon juveniles and nutritional quality of the fillet , analogous to the control group fed with a fish meal/oil-based diet . Moreover the use of agrozootenic by-products, such as pig manure, for the growth of microalgae, appears to be a good alternative to common fertilizers, to reduce production costs. Acknowledgments This work has received funding from the European Union HORIZON 2020 Research and Innovation Program under the Grant Agreement No. 727874 (project SABANA).
The aim of this review is to focus the attention on the nutrition ecology of the heavy metals and on the major criticisms related to the heavy metals content in animal feeds, manure, soil and animal-origin products. Heavy metals are metallic elements that have a high density that have progressively accumulated in the food chain with negative effects for human health. Some metals are essential (Fe, I, Co, Zn, Cu, Mn, Mo, Se) to maintain various physiological functions and are usually added as nutritional additives in animal feed. Other metals (As, Cd, F, Pb, Hg) have no established biological functions and are considered as contaminants/undesirable substances. The European Union adopted several measures in order to control their presence in the environment, as a result of human activities such as: farming, industry or food processing and storage contamination. The control of the animal input could be an effective strategy to reduce human health risks related to the consumption of animal-origin products and the environmental pollution by manure. Different management of raw materials and feed, animal species as well as different legal limits can influence the spread of heavy metals. To set up effective strategies against heavy metals the complex interrelationships in rural processes, the widely variability of farming practices, the soil and climatic conditions must be considered. Innovative and sustainable approaches have discussed for the heavy metal nutrition ecology to control the environmental pollution from livestock-related activities.
European and Italian legislation have banned use of growth promoters in livestock since 1988, but epidemiological data show that anabolic drugs are still being used illegally. Recent surveys carried out on the cattle farms in Northern Italy have confirmed the presence of growthpromoting hormones. Authors report data on growth performances in 80 Valle del Belice×Comisana weaned lambs experimentally treated with 17 beta-estradiol with 0.5 ml solution of oil Depot Estradiol ® (containing 5 mg of 17β- estradiol valerate) by intramuscular injection into the thigh. The experiment was founded by the National Ministry of Health, to validate histological test for surveillance and control of growth-promoting hormones in sheep. This study confirmed the strong correlation between clinical and anatomopathological features and growth performances of treated animals. Otherwise, no significant differences were found on in vivo performance of the lambs. Estradiol treatment showed heavier shoulders and necks on treated lambs, while the loins were significantly lighter. Moreover, lambestradiol- treated groups showed lower separable and inseparable fat percentage than lamb-control groups.
The objective of the project is to propose and implement new solutions to tackle food waste. Based on the principle of circular economy, the strategy of the project is to prevent food losses from turning into waste by working synergistically on different action points. The main goal of the project is to develop an innovative network of expertise, able to implement new food recovery logistics chains. This study arises out of the need for new strategies to: (i) prevent and reduce the volume of surplus food generated, (ii) implement and harmonize the recovery system for social solidarity purposes, and (iii) enhance the conversion of food waste into safe and sustainable feed products. For this reason, the study is divided in three sections: source reduction, feed hungry people and feed animals. The section entitled "source reduction" presents two studies: the first study is focused on food packaging, a fundamental aspect related to the extension of the product's life that helps preventing waste. The second study is an analysis of the correlation between food portion size in school catering and the generation of food waste, which can result when food is not accurately proportioned. In the section called "feed hungry people" three studies are included. The first identifies critical points with respect to the food recovery chain, while the second study is a Manual of Good Practices for Charitable Organization approved by the Italian Ministry of Health. Finally, at the end of this section an applicative study is presented that was conducted in collaboration with Fondazione Banca Popolare of Lodi and Centro Solidale del Diritto al Cibo of Lodi. In the final section "Feed Animals", two scientific works are presented; the first is a qualitative analysis of agri-food waste and by-products in order to estimate their bioactive contents and a possible reuse as functional ingredients in animal feed. The last work examines the European regulatory framework regarding animal feeding in order to evaluate possible new interventions to reuse food waste, not only vegetable matter, in the pet food industry. The project builds on the fact that around 88 million tonnes of food are wasted annually in the European Union, with associated costs estimated at 143 billion euros. Thus, looking for every opportunity to prevent food waste and strengthen sustainability of the food system is one of the most crucial issues of modern societies. The key output of the project consists of an improvement of the overall sustainability of food chains, from social, environmental and economic perspectives.
Fungal contamination and the presence of related toxins is a widespread problem. Mycotoxin contamination has prompted many countries to establish appropriate tolerance levels. For instance, with the Commission Regulation (EC) N. 1881/2006, the European Commission fixed the limits for the main mycotoxins (and other contaminants) in food. Although valid analytical methods are being developed for regulatory purposes, a need exists for alternative screening methods that can detect mould and mycotoxin contamination of cereal grains with high sample throughput. In this study, a commercial electronic nose (EN) equipped with metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) sensors was used in combination with a trap and the thermal desorption technique, with the adoption of Tenax TA as an adsorbent material to discriminate between durum wheat whole-grain samples naturally contaminated with deoxynivalenol (DON) and non-contaminated samples. Each wheat sample was analysed with the EN at four different desorption temperatures (i.e., 180 °C, 200 °C, 220 °C, and 240 °C) and without a desorption pre-treatment. A 20-sample and a 122-sample dataset were processed by means of principal component analysis (PCA) and classified via classification and regression trees (CART). Results, validated with two different methods, showed that it was possible to classify wheat samples into three clusters based on the DON content proposed by the European legislation: (a) non-contaminated; (b) contaminated below the limit (DON 1,750 μg/kg), with a classification error rate in prediction of 0% (for the 20-sample dataset) and 3.28% (for the 122-sample dataset).
Mycotoxins represent a risk to the feed supply chain with an impact on economies and international trade. A high percentage of feed samples have been reported to be contaminated with more than one mycotoxin. In most cases, the concentrations were low enough to ensure compliance with the European Union (EU) guidance values or maximum admitted levels. However, mycotoxin co-contamination might still exert adverse effects on animals due to additive/synergistic interactions. Studies on the fate of mycotoxins during cereal processing, such as milling, production of ethanol fuels, and beer brewing, have shown that mycotoxins are concentrated into fractions that are commonly used as animal feed. Published data show a high variability in mycotoxin repartitioning, mainly due to the type of mycotoxins, the level and extent of fungal contamination, and a failure to understand the complexity of food processing technologies. Precise knowledge of mycotoxin repartitioning during technological processes is critical and may provide a sound technical basis for feed managers to conform to legislation requirements and reduce the risk of severe adverse market and trade repercussions. Regular, economical and straightforward feed testing is critical to reach a quick and accurate diagnosis of feed quality. The use of rapid methods represents a future challenge.
The official control of animal proteins in feed is focused on the prevention of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (mad cow disease). The current legislation of the European Union is planned to avoid the feeding of animal by-products to the same species as its origin (ban of cannibalism, or species-to-species ban). With respect to the official control, the circumscription of the term species in legislation should be defined, and species-specific markers should be available. Markers will include primer sets, antibodies, near-infrared profiles or visual characteristics. The method of classical light microscopy is currently the only accepted method in the framework of the official detection of animal proteins. Besides the necessary development of complementary methods, either as stand alone methods or in combination, the visual characteristics used for a microscopic examination of meat and bone meal particles should be fully explored. Multivariate analysis of a range of characteristics of lacunae in bone fragments revealed that discrimination is possible between mammalian and avian bone fragments. Translation to features for every day practical use should be carried out very carefully, and only comprehensively collected information on a range of features will give a first indication of the source. Characteristics of hairs and feather filaments can be used to identify the origin of animal particles. An in situ identification method has been developed for antibody conjugation with troponin I in muscle fibers on a microscopic slide. A proof of principle is presented. Interlaboratory transferability and validation have still to be achieved. The development and testing of light microscopy markers in the framework of the SAFEED-PAP project revealed that a fine tuning of existing microscopic characteristics appears to be possible.
This review aims at providing an update of the current European Union (EU) legislation on feed-related issues. Regulations and Directives were classified into the following categories: general food law, placing on the market and use of feed, official controls, sampling and analysis, hygiene, undesirable substances, additives, animal by-products, OGMs, feed intended for particular nutritional purposes, and organic production. An overview of all laws related to the above-mentioned topics is given, and the main points of each law, cited in conjunction with its effect on previous laws (replacement, modification, amendments, and main related acts), are reported in tables.
Following the submission of application EFSA-GMO-RX-016 under Regulation(EC)No1829/2003 from Syngenta the Panelon Genetically Modified Organisms of the European Food Safety Authority was asked to deliver a scientific risk assessment on the data submitted in the context of the renewal of authorisation application for the insect-resistant and herbicide-tolerant genetically modified maize Bt11, for food and feed uses, excluding cultivation within the European Union. The data received in the context of this renewal application contained post-market environmental monitoring reports, a systematic search and evaluation of literature, updated bioinformatic analyses, and additional documents or studies performed by or on behalf of the applicant. The GMO Panelassessed these data for possible new hazards, modified exposure or new scientific uncertainties identified during the authorisation period and not previously assessed in the context of the original application. Under the assumption that the DNA sequences of the event in maize Bt11 considered for renewal is identical to the sequence of the originally assessed events, the GMO Panelconcludes that there is no evidence in renewal application EFSA-GMO-RX-016 for new hazards, modified exposure or scientific uncertainties that would change the conclusions of the original risk assessment on maize Bt11.
Following the submission of application EFSA–GMO–RX–018 under Regulation(EC)No1829/2003 from BASF Agricultural Solutions Seed US LLC, the Panelon Genetically Modified Organisms of the European Food Safety Authority was asked to deliver a scientific risk assessment on the data submitted in the context of the renewal of authorisation application for the herbicide-tolerant genetically modified cotton GHB614, for food and feed uses, excluding cultivation within the European Union. The data received in the context of this renewal application contained post-market environmental monitoring reports, a systematic search and evaluation of literature, updated bioinformatic analyses, and additional documents or studies performed by or on behalf of the applicant. The GMO Panelassessed these data for possible new hazards, modified exposure or new scientific uncertainties identified during the authorisation period and not previously assessed in the context of the original application. The GMO Panelconcludes that there is no evidence in renewal application EFSA–GMO–RX–018 for new hazards, modified exposure or scientific uncertainties that would change the conclusions of the original risk assessment on cotton GHB614.
The scope of application EFSA-GMO-DE-2016-133 is for food and feed uses, import and processing ofgenetically modified (GM) maize MZHG0JG in the European Union. Maize MZHG0JG was developed toconfer tolerance to the herbicidal active substances glyphosate and glufosinate-ammonium. Themolecular characterisation data and bioinformatic analyses do not identify issues requiring food/feedsafety assessment. None of the identified differences in the agronomic/phenotypic and compositionalcharacteristics tested between maize MZHG0JG and its conventional counterpart needs furtherassessment, except for early stand count (pre-thinning). The GMO Panel does not identify safetyconcerns regarding the toxicity and allergenicity of the mEPSPS and PAT proteins as expressed inmaize MZHG0JG, andfinds no evidence that the genetic modification would change the overallallergenicity of maize MZHG0JG. The nutritional impact of food/feed derived from maize MZHG0JG isexpected to be the same as that of food/feed derived from the conventional counterpart andcommercial non-GM maize reference varieties. The GMO Panel concludes that maize MZHG0JG isnutritionally equivalent to and as safe as the conventional counterpart and non-GM maize referencevarieties tested, and no post-market monitoring of food/feed is considered necessary. In the case ofaccidental release of viable maize MZHG0JG grains into the environment, maize MZHG0JG would notraise environmental safety concerns. The post-market environmental monitoring plan and reportingintervals are in line with the intended uses of maize MZHG0JG. In conclusion, the GMO Panel considersthat maize MZHG0JG, as described in this application, is as safe as its conventional counterpart andthe tested non-GM maize reference varieties with respect to potential effects on human and animalhealth and the environmen.
