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Copper is a nonferrous metal closely connected to humans. Approximately 40% of copper is produced by reclaimed copper smelting (RCS). Reclaimed copper smelting fly ash and smelting slag are generated during the RCS process, posing a serious threat to the ecosystem and environment as they contain many heavy metals, such as Cu and Zn. In this study, the metal mobility and toxicity of RCS fly ash and smelting slag were analyzed using standard leaching toxicity procedures, sequential extraction procedures, and bioavailability tests. The results showed that the main phases of RCS fly ash were Cu(2)(OH)(3)Cl, FeCl(2)·2H(2)O, CuS(2), C, CuO, Cu, Ca(2)SiO(4), ZnClO(42), Zn(OH)(2)·0.5H(2)O, and KFeCl(3), and those for smelting slag were SiO(2), CaCO(3), SiS(2), CaAl(2)Si(2)O(8)·4H(2)O, Cu(4)O(3), CuO, ZnO, NiSO(4)·6H(2)O, AlPO(4), and Na(3)Mn(PO(4))(CO)(3). These two slags contain high contents of Cu, Zn and Fe and trace amounts of heavy metals, such as Ba, Be, Cd, Cr, Ni, As, Pb, Au, Se and Sb. RCS fly ash is classified as hazardous waste in both China and the USA as the toxic leaching concentrations of Pb and Cd exceed the thresholds of 5 and 1 mg L(−1). Cu and Zn contained in these two slags can easily be released into the environment, although the residual fraction of Cu and Zn was found to be higher than 65%. Additionally, RCS fly ash and smelting slag also show significant biohazardous potential as the EDTA- and DTPA-extractable Zn, Cu and Se of these two residues are considerably high. The results described above could provide reclaimed copper smelting companies and governments with a better understanding of the risk of RCS fly ash and smelting slag, urging them to stop the slag from harming ecosystems and humans.

The global economy of e-waste recycling has received much attention in recent waste studies literature. This article gives an account from the inside of two different sites within a leading high-tech recycling and smelting company in which such e-waste is assessed; and discusses the valuation of electronic waste in the course of its industrial processing. Based on a two-month long ethnography by way of an internship, the article examines how the recycler manages to distinguish and separate out valuable 'scrap', in contrast to valueless 'waste'. The article subdivides the inquiry into two questions. What practices are involved when transforming e-waste into scrap and waste? And how can we appreciate differences in how they are configured? The study of two different facilities in operation next to one another provides additional leverage to the inquiry since the valuation practices involved when assessing the incoming e-waste differ between them. Differences are tied to specificities in how the electronics are sorted out, shredded, and smelted. The article shows how these processes of deformation are linked to the valuation practices and the accounting system of the company. Calculations, it is argued, succeed only because things are literally broken.

The article discusses the iron and steel industry of the Second Polish Republic. It starts with an assessment of the state of the sector at the beginning of independence, and the impact of incorporating parts of Silesia into the country, in particular in terms of available resources. While local coal was fit for processing into coke, special types of coal needed to be imported. The situation improved after the occupation of Zaolzie. Apart from prospecting works, the article explores investment processes in the sector, and the creation of conglomerates

Anaconda is a town located in southwest Montana. Anaconda was established as a smelting operation to process copper ore. It is now home to one of the largest Superfund sites in the United States. Since the Superfund designation in 1983, agencies, nonprofit organizations, and stakeholders have worked to implement cleanup strategies. Community resilience has become a focus of this site. Community resilience has been studied through various lenses, but broadly refers to how a community responds and copes with a perturbation. This research considers environmental, cultural, and political perturbations. It focuses on the changes and transitions the community has gone through, and how different decisions lead to more or less resilience. Specifically, this research is interested in how the community perceives its own resilience. Previous community resilience research has often not given enough attention to complex social dynamics, which is the aim of this research. Preliminary findings from interviews with stakeholders will be discussed which highlight themes of trust, risk, and identity related to resilience. These findings have the potential to answer larger questions for other communities, especially those with legacies of mining or contamination.

In economic modelling done by Treasury on the effects of the Government's Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme (CPRS), the Australian aluminium smelting industry ('the industry') is predicted to contract dramatically in the medium- to long-term. This report examines why the industry is expected to decline in the future. In doing so, this report examines the concepts of international competitiveness loss, carbon leakage, emissions-intensive, trade-exposed industries and climate policy. Australia is the fifth largest producer of primary aluminium in the world. In 2007, Australia produced around 2 million tonnes of aluminium, accounting for around 5 per cent of global production. Almost 85 per cent of the aluminium produced is exported overseas. The industry has an estimated total production value of around $7 billion and export value of around $5 billion. The industry employs around 51000 workers, mostly in regional areas. The two main inputs in aluminium production are alumina and electricity. All the Australian smelters except the Bell Bay smelter in Tasmania (which is powered by hydro-electricity) use coalfired electricity. Coal-fired electricity is the most emissions intensive source of energy. Therefore, the introduction of a carbon cost will create substantially increase the production costs of aluminium in Australia. This increase in cost cannot be passed onto t he consumer as aluminium is an internationally traded commodity and exposed to international market pricing. Hence, the aluminium smelting industry is an emissions-intensive, trade-exposed (EITE) industry. The CPRS contains assistance policy to help EITE industries adjust to a carbon efficient world. Assistance would be in the form of an allowance of free permits for pollution. The industry would receive the highest threshold of assistance, 94.5 per cent free permits in the first year of the policy. The assistance policy also serves a second purpose, to prevent carbon leakage. Carbon leakage occurs when the introduction of a carbon price results in domestic industries moving overseas to countries without comparable carbon prices, so that net global emissions remain the same or increase. Obviously, carbon leakage is at odds with the very aims of climate policy and should be avoided. The industry has repeatedly warned insufficient assistance could lead to international competitiveness loss and potentially even carbon leakage. The industry has two overarching concerns. The first is that without proper permit assistance, the industry will suffer international competitiveness loss. The second is that the policy uncertainty might discourage future investments. Underpinned by these two overarching concerns, the industry has seven specific policy concerns about the CPRS assistance policy. These are: • the assistance rate; • the rate of decay of assistance; • the time of decay of assistance; • the classification of activities which qualify for assistance; • the basis of assistance; • the share of permits allocated to EITE industries; and • the electricity allocation factor. The industry warns that without more generous assistance than that proposed in the CPRS assistance policy, new investment in the industry will cease, smelters will close due to increased cost and relocate overseas, risking of carbon leakage. However, according to the analysis in this report, carbon leakage is unlikely to occur. This is because the Australian industry is the one of the most emissions-intensive producers of aluminium. Australia is reliant on emissions-intensive coal-fired electricity while the rest of the world's smelters get their energy from a range of sources including hydro, coal, natural gas and nuclear. Hence, the relocation of aluminium smelters overseas is more likely to result in a net reduction in global emissions. Although carbon leakage is unlikely, the industry is likely to experience a loss of international competitiveness. This reflects the emissions-intensive nature of aluminium production in Australia. Even with a global agreement, the industry will still be more costly than most overseas smelters. The decline of aluminium smelting in Australia may be the inevitable and natural consequence of a carbon efficient world. Finally, the report recommends investigation into alternative climate policies such as the Garnaut 'price uplift' approach, the McKibbin-Wilcoxen hybrid model, the baseline-and-credit emissions trading scheme and a carbon tax. These policies have not been fully debated or economically costed. The report recommends economic modelling should be conducted into alternative climate policies to ensure the best-policy decision is made, with least cost to the economy, and greatest benefit to the environment.

This comprehensive treatment of the smelting industry of Colorado, originally published in 1979, is now back in print with a new preface by the author. Packed with fascinating statistics and mining data, Ores to Metals details the people, technologies, and business decisions that have shaped the smelting industry in the Rockies. Although mining holds more of the glamour for those in and interested in the minerals industry, smelters have continuously played a critical role in the industry's evolution since their introduction in Colorado in the 1860s

In the course of litigation against an ex-employee, Gould, Inc. (Gould) allegedly learned that its proprietary technical data had been improperly supplied to Mitsui Mining & Smelting Co., Ltd. (Mitsui) and Miyakoshi Machine Tools Co., Ltd. (Miyakoshi), which then used those trade secrets in a joint venture with Pechiney Ugine Kuhlmann, a French state-owned company, and its wholly owned subsidiary, Trefimetaux (Pechiney/Trefimetaux). Gould filed a civil lawsuit against Pechiney/Trefimetaux, together with Mitsui and Miyakoshi, in U.S. district court, alleging violations of the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations provisions of the Organized Crime Control Act of 1970 (18 U.S.C. §1961-1968 (1988)) (RICO). Gould's complaint also included claims of unfair competition and unjust enrichment based upon the defendants' alleged misappropriation of trade secrets. On the motion of Pechiney/Trefimetaux, the district court held that the civil RICO claim should be dismissed because, as "foreign states" under the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act of 1976 (28 U.S.C. §1330, 1602-1611 (1988)) (FSIA), Pechiney and Trefimetaux were immune from criminal indictment for the acts alleged to have formed the basis for the RICO violation.