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The post-1831 Great Emigration created conditions that were particularly favourable for the development of Polish political thought. This development, however, would have progressed at a considerably slower tempo without the deepening of ideopolitical differences, which put paid to any belief that the émigrés would reach unity. Paradoxically, successive rifts were often justified exactly by the aspiration to implement the concept of 'unity'. The present article focuses on an issue-based analysis of the tensions between the categories of 'unity' and 'anarchy', and discusses the mechanism which led to the emergence of the public sphere in exile. ; p. 61-96 ; 24 cm ; The post-1831 Great Emigration created conditions that were particularly favourable for the development of Polish political thought. This development, however, would have progressed at a considerably slower tempo without the deepening of ideopolitical differences, which put paid to any belief that the émigrés would reach unity. Paradoxically, successive rifts were often justified exactly by the aspiration to implement the concept of 'unity'. The present article focuses on an issue-based analysis of the tensions between the categories of 'unity' and 'anarchy', and discusses the mechanism which led to the emergence of the public sphere in exile. ; s. 61-96 ; 24 cm

Introduction / Olga Katsiardi-Hering and Maria A. Stassinopoulou -- Routes and spaces -- Greek immigrants in Central Europe : a concise study of migration routes from the Balkans to the territories of the Hungarian kingdom (from the late 17th to the early 19th century) / Ikaros Mantouvalos -- Migrations and the creation of Orthodox cultural and artistic networks between the Balkans and the Habsburg lands (17th-19th centuries) / Nenad Makuljevic -- Connecting migration and identities : godparenthood, surety and Greeks in the Russian empire (18th - early 19th centuries) / Iannis Carras -- Greeks in Vienna : a close reading -- Greek migration in Vienna (18th - first half of the 19th century) : a success story? / Vaso Seirinidou -- Greek presence in Habsburg Vienna : heyday and decline / Anna Ransmayr -- Endowments as instruments of integration and memory in an urban environment : the Panadi building in Vienna / Maria A. Stassinopoulou -- Old settlements, nation states, new networks -- In search of the promised land : Bulgarian settlers in the Banat (18th-19th centuries) / Lyubomir Klimentov Georgiev -- "Chasing away the Greeks" : the state-prince and the undesired foreigners (Wallachia and Moldavia between the 16th and 18th centuries) / Lidia Cotovanu -- Foreign migrant communities in the Danubian ports of Braila and Galati (1829-1914) / Constantin Ardeleanu -- From tolerance to exclusion? : the Romanian elites' stance towards immigration to the Danubian principalities (1829-880s) / Dimitrios M. Kontogeorgis -- Selected bibliography -- Index

Baseball has long been considered America's game. From images of Kevin Costner playing catch with his father to political thinkers like George Will authoring entire books about it, baseball has always been embedded in America's national psyche. "Pride and patriotism," one author mused required that the game be truly American and unsullied by English influence: thus the American baseball mythos was created. It was not always this way, however, as the game of baseball started among the elite social clubs of New York City and subsequently trickled down to the masses. Thorstein Veblen once said that only the leisure class and delinquents played sports. It was these leisurely and delinquent masses that expanded the game, forcing the innovations that created baseball as we know it today. Salaried players, commercialized contests, and even styles of play were all the products of the lower classes, especially immigrants participating in America's game. German and Irish immigrants changed the game to the extent that the Knickerbockers never would have thought possible, but by 1902 when Major League Baseball was formed, it was an American institution with participation by all classes. Researchers have previously recognized the African-American component to baseball's innovation and that Irish and other immigrant stars dominated the game and contributed to its development by the end of the nineteenth century, but the actual impact of immigrants and lower class ethnic players has never been fully articulated. Immigrants were not just contributors, but were essential to the professional and commercial development of baseball in the 19th century by both their alteration of the commercial and professional structures that defined the game.

Christian parties, which emerged as organized parliamentary powers in the second half of the 20th century, have a long history and initial phase, which is presented in this paper. The period of their historical, progressive development was a breakthrough, and a transition from the pre-revolutionary era to the post-revolutionary world, characterized by the liberalization of a strong state, industrialization and the emergence of social problems, new ideologies and processes of secularization. The development of Christian-democratic parties in Poland took place with almost two decades of delay in relation to the flwering of Christian democratic parties in Western Europe. The fist Christian democratic parties appeared in Poland only in the interwar period. During this period, the weakest point of Polish Christian democrats was the small share of intelligence in its ranks and lack of support from the Catholic Church. In the early 1990s, numerous Christian democratic groups began to appear on the Polish political scene, but none of them retained their positions for longer. First of all, it was characterized by a huge gap, almost arbitrary programme, which often had more to do with conservative ideology than with Christian-democratic one.

With the enlargement of the European Union (EU), Poland and Slovakia have become crucial border areas at the eastern edge of EU. This has important implications for the EU's immigration policy. Both countries have been traditionally known as countries of emigration. In recent times, however, they have increasingly become transit and target countries for immigrants and asylum seekers. The EU has exerted pressure on both countries to tighten their borders in order to fight illegal immigration; they have also been urged to restrict their entry conditions and increasingly consolidate their asylum systems. This article shows that in adopting new immigration and asylum policies these countries have mainly responded to EU interests and less to interests linked to domestic issues.

Introduction: Despite political restriction of higher education and scholarly activity in 19th C. Poland, contributions by Polish ophthalmologists were made. Methods: This historical study is based on analysis of original 19th century ophthalmologic texts and other literature of the subject. Results: This report describes little known advances in retinal physiology and pathology in Poland, as well as the development of two innovative instruments. In clinical ophthalmology Kramsztyk described circumpapillary cilioretinal anastomoses in central retinal artery occlusion; Bałłaban indicated that there is no spontaneous pulsation in central retinal vein occlusion; Ziemiński described independently the interesting patients with Eales' disease; Rumszewicz discussed diagnostic difficulties leading to erroneous enucleation in retinoblastoma suspected patients. The studies of Nikolski and Dogiel represented the third earliest good quality fundus photography. Szokalski designed a device for measuring retinal light sensitivity and Noiszewski an "electrophthalm", which was supposed to convert the visual stimuli provided by bright and illuminated objects into tactile ones. Conclusions: Polish ophthalmologists made interesting observations and innovations in retinology, however, much of their work was not known to international ophthalmology because it was not translated into a foreign language. Usuń zaznaczone ; Andrzej Grzybowski