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Ochratoxin A (OTA) is secondary metabolite naturally produced in food and feed by toxigenic fungi, especially some Aspergillus species and Penicillium verucosum. OTA is one of the most studied mycotoxins and is of great interest due to its toxic effects on human and animals. OTA is produced in different food and feed matrices and contaminates a large range of base foods including cereals and derivatives, spices, dried fruits, wine and coffee, etc. Morocco, a North African country, has a climate characterized by high humidity and temperature, which probably favors the growth of molds. This contribution gives an overview of principal investigations about the presence of OTA in foods available in Morocco. Due to its toxicity, OTA presence is increasingly regulated worldwide, especially in countries of the European Union. However, up until now, no regulation limits were in force in Morocco, probably due to the ignorance of the health and economic problems resulting from OTA contamination. Finally, recommendations and future research directions are given required to assess the situation completely.

The ability to degrade ochratoxin A was studied in different bacteria with a well-known capacity to transform aromatic compounds. Strains belonging to Rhodococcus, Pseudomonas, and Brevibacterium genera were grown in liquid synthetic culture medium containing ochratoxin A. Brevibacterium spp. strains showed 100% degradation of ochratoxin A.Ochratoxin ¿ was detected and identified by high-performance liquid chromatographymass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) as a degradation product in the cellfree supernatants. The degradation of ochratoxin A is of public concern for food and environmental safety, because it could contribute to the development of new biological ochratoxin A detoxification systems in foodstuffs. In this study, the degradation of ochratoxin A by bacteria belonging to the food chain was demonstrated for the first time. ; This work was supported by the "ASER" grant (D.M 16101/7301/08) from the Italian Ministero delle Politiche Agricole Alimentari e Forestali and by grants RM2008-00002 (Instituto Nacional de Investigación Agraria y Alimentaria), AGL2008-01052, Consolider INGENIO 2010 CSD2007-00063 FUN-C-FOOD (Comisión Interministerial de Ciencia y Tecnología), and S2009/AGR-1469 (ALIBIRD) (Comunidad de Madrid). ; Peer Reviewed

The relevant passage reviews the genesis and development of regulation of the presence of the ochratoxin A in international and EU food law.

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin that is produced after the growth of several Aspergillus and Penicillium spp. in feeds or foods. OTA has been proved to possess nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, teratogenic, neurotoxic, genotoxic, carcinogenic and immunotoxic effects in animals and humans. OTA has been classified as possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B) by the IARC in 2016. OTA can be mainly found in animals as a result of indirect transmission from naturally contaminated feed. OTA found in feed can also contaminate pigs and produced pork products. Additionally, the presence of OTA in pork meat products could be derived from the direct growth of OTA-producing fungi or the addition of contaminated materials such as contaminated spices. Studies accomplished in various countries have revealed that pork meat and pork meat products are important sources of chronic dietary exposure to OTA in humans. Various levels of OTA have been found in pork meat from slaughtered pigs in many countries, while OTA levels were particularly high in the blood serum and kidneys of pigs. Pork products made from pig blood or organs such as the kidney or liver have been often found to becontaminated with OTA. The European Union (EU) has established maximum levels (ML) for OTA in a variety of foods since 2006, but not for meat or pork products. However, the establishement of an ML for OTA in pork meat and meat by-products is necessary to protect human health.

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin produced by several species of Aspergillus and Penicillium fungi that structurally consists of a para-chlorophenolic group containing a dihydroisocoumarin moiety that is amide-linked to L-phenylalanine. OTA is detected worldwide in various food and feed sources. Studies show that this molecule can have several toxicological effects such as nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, neurotoxic, teratogenic and immunotoxic. A role in the etiology of Balkan endemic nephropathy and its association to urinary tract tumors has been also proved. In this review, we will explore the general aspect of OTA: physico-chemical properties, toxicological profile, OTA producing fungi, contaminated food, regulation, legislation and analytical methods. Due to lack of sufficient information related to the molecular background, this paper will discuss in detail the recent advances in molecular biology of OTA biosynthesis, based on information and on new data about identification and characterization of ochratoxin biosynthetic genes in both Penicillium and Aspergillus species. This review will also cover the development of the molecular methods for the detection and quantification of OTA producing fungi in various foodstuffs.

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is secondary metabolite naturally produced in food and feed by toxigenic fungi, especially some Aspergillus species and Penicillium verucosum. OTA is one of the most studied mycotoxins and is of great interest due to its toxic effects on human and animals. OTA is produced in different food and feed matrices and contaminates a large range of base foods including cereals and derivatives, spices, dried fruits, wine and coffee, etc. Morocco, a North African country, has a climate characterized by high humidity and temperature, which probably favors the growth of molds. This contribution gives an overview of principal investigations about the presence of OTA in foods available in Morocco. Due to its toxicity, OTA presence is increasingly regulated worldwide, especially in countries of the European Union. However, up until now, no regulation limits were in force in Morocco, probably due to the ignorance of the health and economic problems resulting from OTA contamination. Finally, recommendations and future research directions are given required to assess the situation completely.

The mycotoxin, ochratoxin A (OTA), an important nephrotoxin, teratogen and carcinogen, is mainly produced as a secondary metabolite of Aspergillus and Penicillium species. The mycotoxin is a common contaminant of various feedstuffs and of foodstuffs such as grains, coffee and wine. The levels of OTA have been established in 122 South African wines, representative of a variety of wine cultivars from various wine-producing regions of the country. The method of analysis was based on the method of Visconti et al. (1999): it consisted of immunoaffinity clean up, quantification on reversed phase HPLC with fluorescence detection and confirmation of the presence of OTA by synthesising its methyl ester. The levels of OTA of most of the red and white wines were substantially lower than the maximum permissible levels of OTA in wines, as suggested by the European Union. However, high levels of OTA were found in a few noble late harvest wines. This first comprehensive survey unambiguously shows that OTA presents no cause for concern to the South African wine industry.

International audience ; Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a widespread mycotoxin mainly produced by Aspergillus ochraceus and Penicillium verrucosum which can affect cereals and which occurs in meat and meat products. It has been demonstrated that OTA is nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic and carcinogenic in all mammalian species; pigs and poultry are the species most exposed to OTA toxicity. The aim of this research was to evaluate the effects of OTA added to the growing pigs' diet, with regards to growing parameters and the amount of OTA present in animal meat. Sixty-four pigs, divided into 2 homogenous groups, were reared for 119 days, from live weight of 41 kg to slaughtering. The control group was fed a commercial pig feed and the treated group was given the same feed with the addition of 25 $\mu$g*kg-1 of OTA. No significant differences were observed regarding growing parameters after 62 days but at the end of the trial, OTA supplementation decreased final live body weight (163.4 kg vs. 170.9 kg, P<0.05), average daily gain (1030 g vs. 1094 g, P<0.01) and feed efficiency (about -7%, P<0.05) whilst feed intake did not differ. A higher amount of OTA was observed in the kidneys. There was also a much higher amount of OTA in the liver and semimembranosus muscle than the maximum limit of 1 $\mu$g*kg-1 established by the European Union for human consumption food. ; Effets de l'Ochratoxine A sur la production du porc lourd. L'Ochratoxine A (OTA) est une mycotoxine largement répandue, produite principalement par Aspergillus Ochraceus et Penicillium verrucosum. On la retrouve dans les céréales, mais aussi dans la viande et ses dérivés. Il a été démontré que l'OTA était néphrotoxique, hépatoxique et cancérogène pour tous les mammifères, les porcs et les volailles étant les espèces les plus exposées à sa toxicité. L'objectif de cette étude était d'évaluer les effets de l'OTA introduite dans l'alimentation des porcs sur les performances de croissance et sur la présence de résidus d'OTA dans l'animal. Soixante-quatre porcs, ...

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin produced by several species of Aspergillus and Penicillium fungi that structurally consists of a para-chlorophenolic group containing a dihydroisocoumarin moiety that is amide-linked to L-phenylalanine. OTA is detected worldwide in various food and feed sources. Studies show that this molecule can have several toxicological effects such as nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, neurotoxic, teratogenic and immunotoxic. A role in the etiology of Balkan endemic nephropathy and its association to urinary tract tumors has been also proved. In this review, we will explore the general aspect of OTA: physico-chemical properties, toxicological profile, OTA producing fungi, contaminated food, regulation, legislation and analytical methods. Due to lack of sufficient information related to the molecular background, this paper will discuss in detail the recent advances in molecular biology of OTA biosynthesis, based on information and on new data about identification and characterization of ochratoxin biosynthetic genes in both Penicillium and Aspergillus species. This review will also cover the development of the molecular methods for the detection and quantification of OTA producing fungi in various foodstuffs.

A total of 64 samples of sorghum (37 Tunisian sorghum samples and 27 Egyptian sorghum samples) were collected during 2011 – 2012 from markets in Tunisia. Samples were analysed for contamination with aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A and zearalenone by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Coupled with Fluorescence Detection (HPLC-FLD). Aflatoxin B1 was found in 38 samples in the range 0.03 – 31.7 μg kg − 1 . Ochratoxin A was detected in 24 samples with concentrations ranging from 1.04 to 27.8 μg kg − 1 . Zearalenone was detected in 21 samples and the concentration varied between 3.7 and 64.5 μg kg − 1 . ANOVA analysis of the influence of the country of origin on the incidence and concentration of mycotoxins in the samples studied showed no significant difference ( P > 0.05) between the two batches of samples for each of the three mycotoxins studied. The studied mycotoxins contaminate sorghum and may also co-exist because of the diversity of the mycobiota in this cereal. ; The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest and they are grateful to the Tunisian government for the financial support under Grant " U12E503 " .

Food safety is one of the main concerns in the world and in wine it depends mostly on metabolites of microbial origin. The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence of natural contaminants, ochratoxin A and biogenic amines (cadaverine, histamine, putrescine and tyramine), in Croatian commercial red wines originating from different Croatian wine-making regions. Ochratoxin A was detected in 92.8% of samples, however its concentrations in all samples were more than 10-fold lower than the limit set by the European Union (2 µ ; g/kg), marking these wines as safe for consumption. The frequency of occurrence and measured concentrations of ochratoxin A were higher in wines produced in southern regions with highest values obtained in wines from southern Dalmatian islands. All samples were contaminated with cadaverine and putrescine, while 88.2% and 82.7% were contaminated with histamine and tyramine, respectively. Histamine concentrations ranged from below the limit of detection to 8.5 mg/L. Higher histamine concentrations were measured in wines with higher pH values which coincided with southern geographic origin. These results reinforce the need for routine detection and quantification of biogenic amines in Croatian wines to achieve better control of vinification and minimize their formation.

A survey was carried out to determine the co-occurrence of ochratoxin A and allatoxin B-1 in dried figs from Turkey. Samples from two seasons of crops (2003 and 2004) intended for export to the European Union and the 2004 crop obtained from the domestic Turkish market were analyzed. Affinity column cleanup methods were employed for determining separately ochratoxin A and aflatoxin 131, but for ochratoxin A an alkaline extraction procedure was employed (in contrast to the conventionally employed acidic extraction), which gave consistently higher toxin recovery. In-house validation of the ochratoxin A method gave a limit of detection of 0.15 ng/g and a limit of quantification of 0.5 ng/g with a repeatability of 5.8% in the range 5 to 10 ng/g (with a mean recovery of 94% for spiked samples). Positive results for ochratoxin A were confirmed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. For the 2003 export figs (58 samples), 7 samples contained only aflatoxin B-1, 2 samples contained only ochratoxin A, and 2 samples contained both toxins (with maximum concentrations of 35.1 ng/g for aflatoxin B-1 and 13.0 ng/g for ochratoxin A). Similarly for the 2004 export figs (41 samples), 16 samples contained only aflatoxin B-1, 4 samples contained only ochratoxin A, and 2 samples contained both toxins (with maximum concentrations of 20.6 ng/g for aflatoxin B-1 and 26.3 ng/g for ochratoxin A). Of 20 retail samples of dried figs from Turkey, only one sample contained ochratoxin A (2.0 ng/g) and none were contaminated with aflatoxin B-1. This survey revealed a 14 to 15% incidence of occurrence of ochratoxin A for 2 years, which is higher than previously reported.