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Starting from the mid-nineteenth century, along with technological progress and the pursuit of equality between women and men, the processes of feminization of the press market has intensified. The issue of gender equality and the separation of powers in the media sector is closely related to the activity of women in the public sphere. These days, despite the apparent equality in the media of mass communication, the participation of women in the key decision-making processes in the media, or their presence on the boards of media companies, remains lower than in the case of men. This paper deals with the concept of "the fourth power", relating it to the contemporary journalistic activity of women. The article spotlights the diverse dimensions of women's activities in the media and their real impact on the audience. In conclusion, the need for equal participation of women and men in media communication processes was accentuated.

Freedom of expression is one of the most important human civil and political rights guaranteed by a number of international and regional legal instruments adopted by the UN, the Council of Europe, the EU, and others. Freedom of expression, in addition to encompassing freedom to state or express opinions and ideas, also means the freedom to search for information or ideas, to receive information or ideas and to transmit information and ideas. In many countries in the world, and in this context including the Republic of Macedonia, freedom of expression is limited, which in turn limits is the respect for the freedoms and rights of others Journalists often, intentionally or unintentionally, while performing their profession, self-censoring and therefore limiting their freedom of expression to insult and libel others, particularly holders of public office. With their political power, politicians can influence judicial authorities to bring a court ruling in their favor. Because of this, journalists are subjected to strong pressure and are often sanctioned with prison sentences. Such an established system has become a serious limiting factor for the normal conduct of the journalistic profession in a number of countries, including the Republic of Macedonia. Self-censorship has become a frequent journalistic practice among journalists in order to avoid pressures from various centers of power. Since 2012, insult and defamation in the Republic of Macedonia had the status of criminal offences punishable by imprisonment. By adopting the Law on Civil Liability for Insult and Defamation in 2012, insult and defamation no longer fall within the corpus of delicts that are in the area of criminal law. Since then, insult and defamation have been treated as misdemeanor violation. Keywords: law, insult, defamation, violation, prison sentence Macedonia.

Freedom of expression is one of the most important human civil and political rights guaranteed by a number of international and regional legal instruments adopted by the UN, the Council of Europe, the EU, and others. Freedom of expression, in addition to encompassing freedom to state or express opinions and ideas, also means the freedom to search for information or ideas, to receive information or ideas and to transmit information and ideas. In many countries in the world, and in this context including the Republic of Macedonia, freedom of expression is limited, which in turn limits is the respect for the freedoms and rights of others Journalists often, intentionally or unintentionally, while performing their profession, self-censoring and therefore limiting their freedom of expression to insult and libel others, particularly holders of public office. With their political power, politicians can influence judicial authorities to bring a court ruling in their favor. Because of this, journalists are subjected to strong pressure and are often sanctioned with prison sentences. Such an established system has become a serious limiting factor for the normal conduct of the journalistic profession in a number of countries, including the Republic of Macedonia. Self-censorship has become a frequent journalistic practice among journalists in order to avoid pressures from various centers of power. Since 2012, insult and defamation in the Republic of Macedonia had the status of criminal offences punishable by imprisonment. By adopting the Law on Civil Liability for Insult and Defamation in 2012, insult and defamation no longer fall within the corpus of delicts that are in the area of criminal law. Since then, insult and defamation have been treated as misdemeanor violation. Keywords: law, insult, defamation, violation, prison sentence Macedonia.

This article analyzes the journalistic profession in eight Central and Eastern European countries: Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Moldova, Romania, and Russia, using the quantitative findings of the Worlds of Journalism Study. The comparison refers to age, gender, education, positions, work experience, religion, and political views of journalists from these states. The study was conducted in each country by a national team responsible for the collected data. The national studies were carried out between 2012 and 2017. Over 3,000 journalists participated as respondents. For comparative analysis, the study builds on the national databases and the country reports written within the project by each national team.

The sense of duty of the journalistic profession, how do should articulate it? Is it preferable the self-regulation or legislative and judicial power? If we promote self-regulation, with which mechanisms and instruments are counted? It is enough with this private self-regulation? What role should play the Professional College? How to make viable the Deontology that corresponds to the professional College with the applied ethics that can observe private mechanisms for develop selfregulation? These are the main questions that come to consider this article focusing to the Spanish case. For this purpose it has been analyzed, through the timely reflection, the current situation with the impressions of teachers of Ethics and Deontology of Journalism and journalists graduates in Journalism with the necessary experience in its practice. ; El sentido del deber de la profesión periodística, ¿cómo debe articularse? ¿Es preferible potenciar la autorregulación o dejarlo a la regulación del poder legislativo y judicial? Si potenciamos la autorregulación, ¿con qué mecanismos e instrumentos contamos? ¿Es suficiente la autorregulación con las entidades de índole privado de las que ya disponemos? ¿Qué papel han de jugar los Colegios profesionales? ¿Cómo hacer viable la Deontología que corresponde al Colegio profesional con la Ética aplicada que pueden observar los mecanismos privados para articular la autorregulación? Estas son las principales interrogantes que trata de plantear este artículo ciñéndonos al caso español. Para ello se ha procedido a analizar, mediante la oportuna reflexión, la situación actual utilizando al tiempo las impresiones de docentes de la asignatura de Ética y Deontología Profesional del Periodismo, y otras de periodistas Graduados o Licenciados en Periodismo con la necesaria experiencia en su ejercicio.

This article reflects on professionalization of journalism as an element of media autonomy. It briefly presents historical circumstances of emergence and formal attributes of journalistic profession in liberal democracies, arguing that in Serbia (the societies in transition) journalism has not been developed as a profession. Political conflicts over media autonomy are normal steps in professional evolution - they indicate that occupational field scrutinized by journalists should be regulated by internal, professional standards and not by political instruments as is the case in societies without independent media.

The aim of the paper is to rethink the position of the journalistic
profession in the contemporary social contexts of the 21st century, within
the context of social changes determined by capitalism in its radical stage,
and the permanent transformations of digital technologies as the main tool
for production and consumption. The central question that arises is whether
we can still think of journalism as a profession in accordance with the
principles formed in the midtwentieth century, or whether the journalistic
profession is ?dead?, transformed into a ?bullshit job?? If we look at the
three main indicators of professional journalism: public interest and the
watchdog function; autonomy; and the adherence to specific professional
norms; it seems, by looking at actual journalistic practices, that all three
indicators that fundamentally legitimize journalism as a profession has
eroded significantly. The main claim is that journalism, to a large extent,
has turned into a ?bullshit job?, even if the ?old? normative principles of
the profession still serves to legitimize it, but with no stronghold in real
journalist practices. Of course, this does not mean that professional
journalism, defined according to the principles established in mid-twentieth
century, is not still relevant, even crucial for the public and public
interest. This is why, in the conclusion of the paper, we plead for the
strengthening of those media organizations that nurture the protection of
the public interest as well as investigative and critically oriented,
independent journalism.

Given the challenging period professional journalism is going through and the challenges facing journalists in their day-today work, this paper seeks to identify the main problems affecting professional Spanish journalists from the perspective of journalists, citizens and experts. To this end, the research presents results obtained through surveys of Spanish journalists, citizen focus groups and in-depth interviews with experts. The findings from a survey of journalists in 2018 are compared with those from a survey of Spanish and European journalists in 2012. These two surveys were conducted using the same parameters. The inclusion of findings from an additional survey carried out in 2008 by the researchers of this paper allows us to plot the evolution of the problems faced by the profession in Spain, highlighting those that have remained unchanged and become more deeply entrenched over a decade marked by the global economic crisis. The results show that Spanish journalists identified job insecurity as the main problem of their profession, while economic and political pressures came in second and third place respectively ; This work is part of a research project 'MediaACES. Accountability and Media Systems in Spain: Real impact and good practices in Spanish Media' and was suported by Ministry of Economy, Science and Competitiveness under grant (MINECO/FEDER, UE, ref.: CSO2015-66404-P).

The article deals with freedom of speech as a spiritual dimension of being: moral emotions, conscience. The author outlined the indissolubility of freedom and necessity, freedom and responsibility for the written, oral and television image. It is emphasized that freedom of speech is a category not so much philosophical but political. Throughout the democratic world, it is an essential factor in the natural development of society on the basis of the constitutional order. Based on the analysis of media functioning it was emphasized, that freedom is a kind of political and civic oxygen of the media, because their main purpose is to create the preconditions for formation of moral and spiritual, educated, intellectually rich society. It is shown that freedom is the greatest moral and spiritual state of man. Under the banner of freedom, Ukrainian soldiers defend the independence of the State from Russian invaders. In connection with the Russian Federation aggression against Ukraine the principles and the functions of the media were re-understood, features of freedom and standards of journalistic creativity in historical and contemporary socio-political context were outlined. The author drew attention to the works of Professor M. Tymoshyk who was the researcher of creativity of the publicist, politician and diplomat Yevhen Onatskyi, who put the interests of the nation first in the fight against Ukrainian enemies, not one of its classes, the interests of the state, not of any party. These professional standards of journalism are all too important in the current era of globalization and hybrid warfare. Therefore, the standards of journalistic profession should be treated not traditionally, not stereotyped but unusual, creative, to promote victory over the enemy and approve of the spiritually united Ukrainian Ukraine. Freedom of speech, standards of the journalistic profession cannot be a tool for manipulating public consciousness in the interests of the aggressor. It should be based on the philosophy of ...

This paper analyses the pre-professional journalistic culture of Ecuador, Cuba and Venezuela based on the degree of permissiveness held by Journalism students in regard to controversial ethical practices and their views of the media and the journalistic profession. We surveyed a probabilistic sample of 1,273 students from 21 universities enrolled on their first course (Ecuador=500, Venezuela=390, Cuba=383) in 2016. The results show that future journalists are reluctant to accept questionable journalistic practices, and hold a pessimistic view as to the quality and confidence of the media and the profession. We found that the degree of permissiveness is related to the perceived risk-reward analysis in terms of the quality of journalism in Cuba and Ecuador, and that the student perceptions of ethics differ in Venezuela and Ecuador. We conclude that, despite their political similarities in terms of having left-wing Governments, perceptions in the three countries diverge.

Professional roles are one of the key topics in journalism research and are also fundamental elements when it comes to defining journalism as a profession (Hanitzsch, 2011; Keel, 2011). For many decades, journalism scholars devoted their efforts to analyzing normative standards and journalistic ideals. However, due to the lack of theorization of professional roles within the journalistic field, it remained often unclear how the role conceptions relate to and influence the journalistic role performance (Mellado and Dalen, 2014; Patterson and Donsbach, 1996; Schudson, 2003). Specifically, it remained unclear how professional roles relate to news decisions and the news outcome that reaches the public (Mellado et al., 2016; Weischenberg and Scholl, 1998, pp. 157–180). The concept of role performance focuses on the connection between journalists' beliefs about the role of journalism and the actual practice of producing the news. It connects studies on the professionalism of roles with those on news production and the sociology of news, and it draws its specific value from focusing attention on issues relating to structure, agency, culture, and political economy. In accordance with gatekeeping and hierarchy-of-influences studies, results from a previous study in Switzerland have shown a wide gap between professional ideals and professional practices at different levels (Raemy et al., 2019). With reference to the concept of hypocrisy brought forward by Nils Brunsson (1995), this can be explained by the assumption that hypocrisy is benefitting news organizations – like any other organization – more than is generally assumed, as these organizations have to serve contradicting expectations (Wyss 2008). Our research project focuses on this question by addressing the (dis)connection between ideals and practice in journalism, analyzing how different dimensions of professional roles materialize in the news product in different organizational, institutional, political and social settings. In order to do that, this research project analyzes 4200 articles and reports from 10 different media outlets of all media types in Switzerland, to see which of six pre-defined journalistic orientation is prevalent, and compares these results with the findings from interviews with 160 journalists who are responsible for the articles and reports.

This paper analyses the pre-professional journalistic culture of Ecuador, Cuba and Venezuela based on the degree of permissiveness held by Journalism students in regard to controversial ethical practices and their views of the media and the journalistic profession. We surveyed a probabilistic sample of 1,273 students from 21 universities enrolled on their first course (Ecuador=500, Venezuela=390, Cuba=383) in 2016. The results show that future journalists are reluctant to accept questionable journalistic practices, and hold a pessimistic view as to the quality and confidence of the media and the profession. We found that the degree of permissiveness is related to the perceived risk-reward analysis in terms of the quality of journalism in Cuba and Ecuador, and that the student perceptions of ethics differ in Venezuela and Ecuador. We conclude that, despite their political similarities in terms of having left-wing Governments, perceptions in the three countries diverge.

In this study, we follow the evolution of the effort of self-regulation of journalism in Romania, more specifically, the evolution of ethical and normative discourse. We propose a historical examination of the development of the concepts included in the regulating Romanian documents, since 1899 to the present moment. Likewise, special mention is made of the various forms of the Journalists' association, whose mission has been the conception of a coherent set of professional claims. During the process of democratization that began at the beginning of the 90's, Romanian jurnalists have become ever more aware of the need for specific deontological rules to guide their professional activities. Unfortunately, the concepts contained in the most recent deontological codes remain rather "metaphorical", which gives rise to misunderstandings in journalistic practices. In this respect, there are no clear stipulations about the penalties applied to journalists who violate the ethical norms inscribed in these codes. This article supplies numerous comments and examples of such ambiguous formulations.