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AbstractKosovo is one of the poorest countries in Europe, despite the various poverty alleviation programs implemented by the authorities and the international funding community. This study aims to analyze income distribution inequality and factors behind rural households' poverty in Kosovo. Data on farm income, nonfarm income, unearned income, and socio-economic characteristics were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire from 203 randomly selected households in Kosovo. Linear regression, one-way ANOVA, and different versions of poverty indexes were used to examine the data. One-quarter of households' income comes from nonfarm activities. The middle-income households had the highest potential to find alternative employment in the nonfarm sector. Years of education, household size, number of family members above the age of 18, and total income had a positive impact on nonfarm revenues. The poorest rural households had the highest share of income from farm activities (77.52%). Nonfarm revenues have a positive impact on poverty alleviation; thus, the study suggests adopting suitable rural policies to enhance nonfarm employment for vulnerable rural households. The agro-tourism sector and circular economy approaches in agriculture with the focus on renewable energy can be considered as potential sources of nonfarm income, which could lead to sustainable poverty reduction.

Gradualist reform (GR) is a strategy that implements partial and incremental reforms at the beginning but gradually deepens the reforms over time. Using income determinants in rural China as the measure of the GR hypothesis, this paper provides a direct test of the widely accepted claim that China has followed a GR strategy. In the sense that reform deepens, production factors should become more important income determinants over time. Our difference-in-difference analysis, based on a large panel dataset from fixed-site rural surveys conducted between 1986 and 2002, shows that the efficiency of return to production factors deteriorated over time instead. Households that had more production resources, such as land and labor, or that devoted more labor and time to entrepreneurial activities experienced better income growth in the 1980s, but households with better political status did so in the 1990s. Further difference-in-difference analyses show that these income patterns are related to an inefficient credit allocation due to government interference in the 1990s compared to market mechanisms in the 1980s. Overall, the empirical evidence on the income determinants and on rural finance does not support the GR hypothesis on China's reform path.

Gradualist reform (GR) is a strategy that implements partial and incremental reforms at the beginning but gradually deepens the reforms over time. Using income determinants in rural China as the measure of the GR hypothesis, this paper provides a direct test of the widely accepted claim that China has followed a GR strategy. In the sense that reform deepens, production factors should become more important income determinants over time. Our difference-in-difference analysis, based on a large panel dataset from fixed-site rural surveys conducted between 1986 and 2002, shows that the efficiency of return to production factors deteriorated over time instead. Households that had more production resources, such as land and labor, or that devoted more labor and time to entrepreneurial activities experienced better income growth in the 1980s, but households with better political status did so in the 1990s. Further difference-in-difference analyses show that these income patterns are related to an inefficient credit allocation due to government interference in the 1990s compared to market mechanisms in the 1980s. Overall, the empirical evidence on the income determinants and on rural finance does not support the GR hypothesis on China's reform path. Keywords: Chinese reform; rural finance; income growth; gradualism; reversal

This study compares the individual, household and location characteristics of private employees, the self‐employed, the unemployed and the economically inactive in Kazakhstan making use of a 1996 World Bank Living Standards Measurement Survey. The purpose is to understand whether the process of transition has determined a selection of workers exiting the state sector and entering the three relatively new 'pools' of private employees, self‐employed and unemployed. An 'occupational choice' model is used to explore the determinants of sector participation. It is found that income opportunities are similar between the private and self‐employment sectors, that the private sector is not necessarily the workers' first choice and that non‐income determinants including local economic and labour market conditions and household related factors explain better than income the choice of the working sector. Self‐employment seems to be a key sector in understanding the mechanisms of sector choice and the reallocation of labour. Unemployment appears as a choice of last resort and made by truly 'rationed' individuals.

A rich literature examines the determinants of income inequality. Less is known about the distribution of income composition, or the extent to which different socio-economic groups hold different sources of income. This article explores the drivers of income composition inequality (ICI).
Contrary to recent studies, which show that the composition of government has ceased to shape redistribution and income inequality dynamics, this article posits that left-wing parties are associated with lower income composition inequality. We test this expectation with data from thirty European
countries between 2003 and 2017. Our results suggest that the polarization between capital and labor income holders declines under left-wing governments. We establish that this is mainly because left-wing parties seek to broaden access to capital income.

Größe, Entstehung und Verteilung der Einkommen privater Haushalte zählen zu den wichtigsten Indikatoren einer Volkswirtschaft. Die aktuellen Haushaltseinkommen sind dabei nicht nur von theoretischer Bedeutung, sondern spielen eine wichtige Rolle für die politischen Entscheidungsträger. Diese Arbeit hat das Ziel einzuschätzen, welche Faktoren das Einkommen privater Haushalte in Afghanistan wesentlich bestimmen und wie sich das Haushaltseinkommen in den letzten Jahren verändert hat. Dazu werden Einkommen der bevölkerungsreichsten Provinzen Afghanistans analysiert. Die Analyse stützt sich auf Stichprobenwerte, die auf einer Befragung von insgesamt mehr als tausend Haushalten beruht. Dabei werden die Stärke und die Einflussrichtung verschiedener Faktoren untersucht. Die Ergebnisse erlauben nicht nur eine Einschätzung der vergangenen Wirtschaftspolitik, sondern können zudem aufzeigen, welche Faktoren die Politik in der Zukunft verstärkt berücksichtigen sollte. ; Household income is often used as an important indicator in Economic. Studying the role of this indicators and tracking the income share of household is not only an academic interest but also very helpful for future planning that the government and also policy makers take into account. The main objective of this research is to assess which factors of income for Household have changed during the last years in Afghanistan. And also to analyze the important elements of these factors on Household income in most populated provinces of Afghanistan. Besides analyzing the changes, this research aims to take into account how positive or negative changes of each variable have impacted the household income in local areas. This research determined the changes of factors determining the household incomes and effects of these changes. The results show how successful policies of government have been and highlight the factors that policy makers should take into account.