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AbstractThis study analysed the effects of flush toilet use on health and non‐health expenditures incurred by rural Chinese. The instrumental‐variable‐based Tobit and endogenous treatment regression models were used to analyse the 2016 China Labour Force Dynamics Survey data while addressing the selection bias inherent in flush toilet use. The results showed that by improving rural residents' physical and mental health, flush toilet use reduced per capita health expenditure while increasing non‐health expenditure. Furthermore, using flush toilets had positive spillover effects, reducing the health expenditures of even those who did not use them. Factors affecting flush toilet use were also analysed.

ABSTRACTIn Water Resources Plan submissions to the Environment Agency in 1999, water companies predicted increases in demand over the next twenty‐five years. With significant environmental and economic constraints on new resource developments, attention has focused upon the potential savings that water‐efficiency measures can achieve.The use of water for toilet flushing accounts for about 30% of household consumption, thereby offering considerable potential for water saving. The conversion of existing single‐flush siphonic cisterns to dual‐flush operation could be one method of achieving a desired reduction in water use, in accordance with the 'twin‐track' approach to balancing supply and demand.This small study, which was jointly funded by Southern Water and the Environment Agency, sought to measure the effectiveness of dual‐flush toilets in reducing water consumption through an eight‐month study of five retrofit devices which were installed in thirty‐three unmetered domestic properties in West Sussex.

ABSTRACTThis study examines the impact of flush toilet use on farmers' off‐farm performance. We analyse data from 2012, 2014 and 2016 China Labour‐force Dynamics Survey (CLDS) by employing the two‐stage residual inclusion (TSRI) model to address the endogeneity issues associated with flush toilet use. The results show that flush toilet use not only significantly increases the probability of farmers' participation in off‐farm work by 3.5% but also improves their off‐farm income by 2100 yuan/capita/year. Disaggregated analyses reveal that farmers characterised as female, well‐educated and aware of water pollution benefit the most from using flush toilets in terms of off‐farm work participation and off‐farm income. Our mediation analysis confirms that farmers' use of flush toilet enhances their health conditions, which links them to improved off‐farm performance. Our findings highlight a practical pathway to enhance farmers' economic welfare by demonstrating the significance of flush toilets in improving the performance of rural households' off‐farm.

"In Switzerland, it is illegal to flush the toilet after 10 p.m. in apartments to avoid disturbing neighbors."

This is a conference paper. ; Mount Sinabung erupted in September 2013, causing the mass evacuation of more than 30,000 people. Evacuees were placed in public buildings such as churches, mosques, schools and universities, as well as tent camps. Pour-flush toilets were provided by the government. However, the level of provision was generally inadequate. The continuity of water was a major concern, with the people relying on water trucks for the supply of water. Toilets were not properly maintained and rubbish was found around toilets, which could clog drainage channels. Insufficient cleaning tools were provided. Coverage far exceeded generally accepted targets of twenty people per toilet. To address these issues, water supply should be closely monitored, additional toilets installed, adequate cleaning tools should be provided and people should be better organised to maintain toilets.

Informal settlement sanitation service delivery continues as one the most urgent, imposing challenges of contemporary basic service provision in South Africa. Municipal, provincial and national sanitation and political authorities expect informal settlement residents to take ownership of and responsibility for state-installed toilet facilities, with municipally-managed janitorial services also in operation in many settlements countrywide. Yet resident-driven sanitation management practices and the site-specific realities of informal settlements have not been adequately understood nor have they informed basic service delivery development. This has in part led to uncertainty in terms of how to designate and sustain responsibilities to relevant stakeholders regarding sanitation maintenance. Based on fieldwork in the Masiphumelele Wetlands informal settlement and temporary relocation area on Cape Town's southern peninsula, this dissertation describes a range of communally-managed sanitation systems that operate alongside municipally-managed janitorial services and which demonstrate varying degrees of local senses of ownership of responsibility for municipally-provided flush toilet facilities. A bottom-up, iterative development approach is argued for, one that critically considers the spectrum of factors that constrain and stimulate ownership and responsibility by informal settlement residents as well as the cultural contingencies that constitute communal sanitation management in informal settlements.

This paper is an account of the toilets and manual scavenging in Delhi of the 1960s and the early 1970s. The author, born and brought up in Old Delhi, systematically looks at his memories and makes observations on toilets and lavatories therein, providing their first-hand account. The intricacies of social life are explored here. In a sequel to this paper the author intends to write on how the house and the living patterns changed when flush toilets were installed in the neighbourhoods of Old Delhi.

AbstractDecentralized, energy‐efficient waste water treatment technologies enabling water reuse are needed to sustainably address sanitation needs in water‐ and energy‐scarce environments. Here, we describe the effects of repeated recycling of disinfected blackwater (as flush liquid) on the energy required to achieve full disinfection with an electrochemical process in a prototype toilet system. The recycled liquid rapidly reached a steady state with total solids reliably ranging between 0.50 and 0.65% and conductivity between 20 and 23 mS/cm through many flush cycles over 15 weeks. The increase in accumulated solids was associated with increased energy demand and wide variation in the free chlorine contact time required to achieve complete disinfection. Further studies on the system at steady state revealed that running at higher voltage modestly improves energy efficiency, and established running parameters that reliably achieve disinfection at fixed run times. These results will guide prototype testing in the field.

Abstract
A poorly designed toilet can be a flaw in epidemic prevention. Previous studies have confirmed that humans are easily infected by related bioaerosols generated from toilets, and these droplet particles also have been proven to have the ability to carry out bacteria or viruses. In other words, whether in public places or homes or even in health care agencies and isolation wards, it has been a long-neglected source of airborne pathogen production.
Three types of toilets were measured for aerosol emission characteristics, including the siphon toilet, washdown toilet, and siphon jet toilet. Two different commercial toilet cleaning products were added to the water tank to compare the effects on particle emissions under different surface tension. Then, the impact of different flushing conditions and the effectiveness of commercial toilet lids in preventing the escape of particles were compared.
Under the standard flush situation (6 L) the total count of particles was 5.5x105 #, the CMD was 0.2 μm and the GSD was about 1.8. Flush volume is positively correlated with the total particle count. However, other factors must also be considered between different types of toilets. The toilet cleaning products, while helping to clean the toilet surface, may lead to generate more particles. Then, the toilet lids can effectively reduce particle escape, but there is still a need for improvement in preventing particle escape.
Based on the existing data, these results will provide the basic techniques to reduce droplet particle generation. And it can be concluded that there is still a need for improvement in current toilets, particularly in epidemic prevention.

AbstractBioaerosol emissions during toilet flushing are an often‐overlooked source of potential health risks in shared public facilities. This study systematically investigated the emission characteristics of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli bioaerosols in washrooms with squat and bidet toilets under varying flushing conditions and ventilation scenarios. Using Monte Carlo simulation–based quantitative microbial risk assessment and sensitivity analysis, the study estimated the disease burden and identified key factors influencing risk. The results showed that squat toilets generated 1.7–2.6 times higher concentrations of S. aureus bioaerosols and 1.2–1.4 times higher concentrations of E. coli bioaerosols compared to bidet toilets. After the first flush, bioaerosol concentrations were 1.3–1.8 times (S. aureus) and 1.2–1.4 times (E. coli) lower than those observed after the second flush. The second flush released a higher proportion of fine bioaerosol particles (<4.7 µm), increasing inhalation risks. The disease health risk burden was consistently one order of magnitude lower after the first flush than the second one. Ventilation with a turned‐on exhaust fan further reduced the risk by one order of magnitude. Sensitivity analysis identified exposure concentration as the most influential parameter, contributing up to 50% of the overall risk. This study highlights the importance of optimizing toilet design and ventilation systems to mitigate bioaerosol emissions and associated health risks. It provides actionable insights for improving public washroom hygiene and minimizing bioaerosol exposure.