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We provide a broad overview of the underlying philosophy of ecological monitoring. We argue that the major characteristics of effective monitoring programs typically include: (1) Good questions. (2) A conceptual model of an ecosystem or population. (3) Strong partnerships between scientists, policy-makers and managers. (4) Frequent use of data collected. We classify monitoring programs into three categories - (1) Passive monitoring, which is devoid of specified questions or underlying study design and has limited rationale other than curiosity. (2) Mandated monitoring where environmental data are gathered as a stipulated requirement of government legislation or a political directive. The focus is usually to identify trends. (3) Question-driven monitoring, which is guided by a conceptual model and by a rigorous design that will typically result in a priori predictions that can be tested. There are advantages and disadvantages of mandated monitoring programs, which are typically large-scaled, and generally smaller-scaled, question-driven monitoring programs. For example, while question-driven monitoring programs can provide insights into the ecological processes giving rise to emergent environmental patterns, spatial generalization from them is difficult because results may not extrapolate well to other regions, states or to a national level. Conversely, while mandated monitoring can be useful for producing coarse level summaries of temporal changes in a target population or resource condition they may not identify the mechanism influencing a change in an ecosystem or an entity. A key remaining challenge is to develop much improved mandated monitoring programs through more widespread adoption of the features of successful question-driven monitoring programs in efforts to enhance biodiversity conservation and environmental management.

We provide a broad overview of the underlying philosophy of ecological monitoring. We argue that the major characteristics of effective monitoring programs typically include: (1) Good questions. (2) A conceptual model of an ecosystem or population. (3) Strong partnerships between scientists, policy-makers and managers. (4) Frequent use of data collected. We classify monitoring programs into three categories - (1) Passive monitoring, which is devoid of specified questions or underlying study design and has limited rationale other than curiosity. (2) Mandated monitoring where environmental data are gathered as a stipulated requirement of government legislation or a political directive. The focus is usually to identify trends. (3) Question-driven monitoring, which is guided by a conceptual model and by a rigorous design that will typically result in a priori predictions that can be tested. There are advantages and disadvantages of mandated monitoring programs, which are typically large-scaled, and generally smaller-scaled, question-driven monitoring programs. For example, while question-driven monitoring programs can provide insights into the ecological processes giving rise to emergent environmental patterns, spatial generalization from them is difficult because results may not extrapolate well to other regions, states or to a national level. Conversely, while mandated monitoring can be useful for producing coarse level summaries of temporal changes in a target population or resource condition they may not identify the mechanism influencing a change in an ecosystem or an entity. A key remaining challenge is to develop much improved mandated monitoring programs through more widespread adoption of the features of successful question-driven monitoring programs in efforts to enhance biodiversity conservation and environmental management.

Section III. Data analysis -- Analysis options for estimating status and trends in long-term monitoring / Jonathan Bart and Hawthorne L. Beyer -- Analytical options for estimating ecological thresholds : statistical considerations / Song S. Qian -- The treatment of missing data in long-term monitoring programs / Douglas H. Johnson and Michael B. Soma -- Survey analysis in natural resource monitoring programs with a focus on cumulative distribution functions / Thomas M. Kincaid and Anthony R. Olsen -- Structural equation modeling and the analysis of long-term monitoring data / James B. Grace, Jon E. Keeley Darren J. Johnson, and Kenneth A. Bollen -- section IV. Advanced issues and applications -- GRTS and graphs : monitoring natural resources in urban landscapes / Todd R. Lookingbill, John Paul Schmit, and Shawn L. Carter -- Incorporating predicted species distribution in adaptive and conventional sampling designs / David R. Smith, Lei Yuancai, Christopher A. Walter, and John A. Young -- Study design and analysis options for demographic and species occurrence dynamics / Darryl I. MacKenzie -- Dealing with incomplete and variable detectability in multi-year, multi-site monitoring of ecological populations / Sarah J. Converse and J. Andrew Royle -- Optimal spatio-temporal monitoring designs for characterizing population trends / Mevin B. Hooten, Beth E. Ross, and Christopher K. Wikle -- Use of citizen-science monitoring for pattern discovery and biological inference / Wesley M. Hochachka, Daniel Fink, and Benjamin Zuckerberg -- section V. Conclusion -- Institutionalizing an effective long-term monitoring program in the US National Park Service / Steven G. Fancy and Robert E. Bennetts -- Choosing among long-term ecological monitoring programs and knowing when to stop / Hugh P. Possingham, Richard A. Fuller, and Liana N. Joseph.

The use of agrochemicals in developing countries has increased greatly in recent years and those used in greatest quantities, insecticides and herbicides, tend to have the most severe side-effects on the environment. Following UNCED 1992 and its adoption of Agenda 21, there is now a requirement for all countries to carry out pesticide impact monitoring and assessment to counter environmental degradation. The recent UNCED Summit 2002 has set targets to step up the implementation of this commitment. Ecological Monitoring Methods for the Assessment of Pesticide Impact in the Tropics aims to assist developing countries build their capability in ecotoxicological monitoring. It harnesses the knowledge of pesticide impact and monitoring specialists to provide guidance on the measurement, analysis and interpretation of change in animal populations and key soil functions. This handbook will be of primary interest to those in government, development agencies, donors and non-governmental organizations who carry responsibility for the environment, agricultural and public health. Academics and students of ecotoxicology in developing countries should find both the specialist chapters and the field methodology useful.

Indigenous land and sea managers are working across Australia for natural and cultural resource conservation. Justifying the outcomes of effort to funding bodies, the broader public and local communities is thwarted, however, by language differences, lack of technical capacity and complex local socio-economic and political histories. This paper details ways that two remote Indigenous ranger groups are collaborating with non-Indigenous ecologists to address this situation using Indigenous and non-Indigenous (two-way) techniques.

AbstractFor a long time, ecological monitoring across Australia has utilised a wide variety of different methodologies resulting in data that is difficult to analyse across place or time. In response to these limitations, a new systematic approach to ecological monitoring has been developed in collaboration between the Terrestrial Ecosystem Research Network and the Australian Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water - the Ecological Monitoring System Australia (EMSA). A qualitative approach involving focus groups and semi-structured interviews was undertaken to review perceptions of the introduction of the EMSA protocols amongst Natural Resource Management practitioners and other key stakeholders. We found that environmental management stakeholders recognise there will be many advantages from the standardisation of ecological monitoring. However, key concerns emerged regarding the capacity needed to implement the standard protocols, the utility of the resultant data for regional projects, and the scope for adaptive co-management under the EMSA. Stakeholders emphasised the need for autonomy and flexibility, so their participation in protocol development can facilitate regional adoption of the standards. Respondents' concerns about a perceived lack of genuine consultation and acknowledgement of feedback revealed the importance of clear communication at all stages of an environmental management project aiming to standardise practices. Our findings indicate that reflexivity will be vital to address the complexity involved in standardisation of ecological monitoring. Formal processes of social learning will need to be integrated into environmental management approaches to account for the increasing complexity of socio-ecological systems as they are challenged by global change.

Indigenous land and sea managers are working across Australia for natural and cultural resource conservation. Justifying the outcomes of effort to funding bodies, the broader public and local communities is thwarted, however, by language differences, lack of technical capacity and complex local socio-economic and political histories. This paper details ways that two remote Indigenous ranger groups are collaborating with non-Indigenous ecologists to address this situation using Indigenous and non-Indigenous (two-way) techniques.

For the purposes of ecological monitoring, the features of living ground cover and forest floor in spruce stands within Moscow urban territory were studied. Using ecological scales by Nitsenko, Ramensky, Ellenberg and Landolt, let to consider, that ruderalization of living overground cover is a result of recreation. Independently of spruce forest type, the absence of undergrowth results in increasing light penetrating and increasing species quantity. Variety of ecological spaces is a result of moderate trampling, which is mostly expressed in between-crown spaces. Hight trophy index by L.G. Ramensky is a result of increased weediness of overground cover. It is shown, that living overground cover characterizes the variety of tree layer and the level of anthropogenic impact on phytocenosis.The forest floor in urban spruce stands is sensitive to changes in functioning conditions and can be used for ecological monitoring. Availability of forest floor studying and simplicity of parameter estimation allows getting information about organic matter accumulation in express-regime under various degrees of anthropogenic impact on urban ecosystems. Within the system of trunk, crown and open space, the simplification of litter structure and decreasing organic matter total deposit are observed - this can be considered an invariant process.Maximal uniformity of coverless spaces litter, composed by needles and branches, results from absence of living overground cover, in combination with low recreation in these spaces. This fact let to conclude, that coverless spaces are able to be used as most important objects for comparing spruce ecosystems with different overground cover. Two groups of indexes, characterizing structure-functional litter organization, are proposed. Indexes, characterizing structural litter organization, include the total deposit of litter and L horizon deposit. Indexes, characterizing functional litter features, include deposit and proportion of detritus as well as the same for easydecomposed components, ratio of thickness (deposit) of L horizon and F horizon. The peculiarities of long-term spatial functioning are characterized by litter typology in the system trunk-crown-open space