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Wildlife trade policies in China and elsewhere have come under increased scrutiny following suggestions that the emergence of the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 may have been linked to trade in wild animals. The breeding of and trade in most terrestrial wild animal species for consumption as food were prohibited in China in February 2020, but trade for non-food purposes such as ornamental items or traditional medicine continues to be covered by provisions in the Wildlife Protection Law (WPL). While a superficial reading of the WPL could lead to the conclusion that commercial trade in nationally protected species is generally prohibited, in practice key language is interpreted to permit commercial trade in the parts and derivatives of protected wild animal species, including those subject to the most stringent protection within China and internationally, such as leopards and pangolins. (China Q/GIGA)

Financial stability is an important policy objective, since crises are associated with large economic, social and political costs. Promoting stability requires preventing 'sudden stops' in capital flows, which are events in which foreign financing abruptly disappears. This paper contributes to the discussion by providing new theoretical and empirical evidence on the causal connection between lack of exposure to commercial trade and proclivity to sudden stops. On the theoretical front, the paper shows how exposure to trade raises the creditworthiness of countries and reduces the probability of sudden stops. In relatively closed economies, sudden stops (when they occur) are more harmful and thus the option to default on the inherited debt is more attractive. Therefore, conditional on the amount that lenders are willing to loan, decreased exposure to trade increases the likelihood of default. A sudden stop takes place when the borrowers reject the amount that lenders want to loan: they receive no new funding and they concurrently default on the outstanding debt to 'ease the pain'. This proposition is tested using 'gravity estimates', which are based on countries' geographic characteristics, as appropriate instruments for trade. The results indicate that, all else equal, a 10 percentage point decrease in the trade to GDP ratio increases the probability of a sudden stop between 30 percent and 40 percent. The policy implications are unambiguous: increasing the tradable component of a country's GDP will, ceteris paribus, reduce the vulnerability of that country to sudden stops in capital flows.

Financial stability is an important policy objective since crises are associated with big economic, social, and political costs. Promoting stability requires preventing 'sudden stops' in capital flows, which are events in which foreign financing abruptly disappears. This paper contributes to the discussion by providing new theoretical and empirical evidence on the causal connection between lack of exposure to commercial trade and proclivity to sudden stops. On the theoretical front, I show how exposure to trade raises the creditworthiness of countries and reduces the probability of sudden stops. In relatively closed economies, sudden stops (when they occur) are more harmful, and thus the option to default on the inherited debt is more attractive. Therefore, conditional on the amount that lenders are willing to loan, decreased exposure to trade increases the likelihood of default. A sudden stop takes place when the borrowers reject the amount that lenders want to loan: They receive no new funding, and they concurrently default on the outstanding debt to 'ease the pain.' This proposition is tested using 'gravity estimates,' which are based on countries' geographic characteristics as appropriate instruments for trade. The results indicate that, all else equal, a 10 percentage point decrease in the trade-to-gross domestic product ratio increases the probability of a sudden stop between 30 percent and 40 percent. The policy implications are unambiguous: Increasing the tradable component of a country's GDP will, ceteris paribus, reduce the vulnerability of that country to sudden stops in capital flows.

Introduction. The article deals with the creation and development of a commercial trade system in public catering in the city of Stalingrad and the Stalingrad region at the end of the Great Patriotic War and in the first post-war years. Methods. In this study, historical-descriptive (idiographic), historical-genetic, and historical comparative methods, as well as quantitative methods, were used in the examination of newspaper sources. Analysis and results. In order to replenish the budget and meet the demand of the population, already in the spring of 1944, free trade in alcoholic beverages began in the canteens of Stalingrad. In the spring and summer of 1945, the first restaurants and commercial halls at canteens opened in the city. The opening of commercial tea houses in the system of state and cooperative trade became widespread in early 1946 after the decrees of the USSR government were issued. This process took place in the face of an acute shortage of inventory, kitchen equipment, and utensils. A feature of Stalingrad was the complete lack of premises for new catering establishments. As a rule, commercial tea houses were opened at or instead of existing canteens. Since a significant part of the products for commercial tea houses were purchased from collective farms and the population at market prices, the cost of even the simplest dishes was 8–10 times higher than in ration canteens. Procurement of products occurred with difficulty due to the priority of mandatory supplies of agricultural products to the state. After the drought in 1946, even commercial tea houses and restaurants limited the sale of bread. At the same time, there was a second wave of the establishment of commercial restaurants and cafes. In 1947, commercial canteens with a small selection of dishes appeared, occupying a middle position between restaurants and tea houses. Having completed the task of attracting funds from the population, commercial catering enterprises, at the same time, did not become centers for cultural leisure. Most of the teahouses were located in adapted premises that needed repair and were poorly maintained. The assortment of dishes was not maintained, and violations of technology and theft by workers flourished. Most of the profits came from the sale of purchased goods, primarily alcoholic beverages.

The article examines issues of intellectual property right on commercial (trade) names. There were analysed the theoretical positions, the positions of courts' practices on the subject of this scientific research (resolving disputes related to the protection of commercial names). The analysis of legal regulation of these relations was done.It has been established that the list of property intellectual property rights is not exhaustive, in addition to certain defined these property rights, also other (non-titled) rights established by law, at present there are no legislative acts establishing (or generally regulating) intellectual property relationship on a commercial name.It is proved that the right to use a commercial name covers a number of various actions of the subject aimed at achieving the maximum efficiency in economic turnover under its own commercial name. It is substantiated that the right to use a commercial name is exercised through the use of such name in economic turnover for personalization (as opposed to other entities operating in this or related areas with the subject). Such use is the most extensive and abstract in its content and can find a specific expression through the actual ways and means of use. It was paid attention to the fact that when exercising the rights to a commercial name, the subject is based on a general permissive principle that operates in the light of the general limits of the exercise of subjective rights and should take into account the general principles of civil law, enshrined in art. 3 of the Civil CodeofUkraine.It is proposed at the legislative level to regulate relations on the refusal of a commercial name, in particular, in case of reshuffling the activity of the subject of rights to it, since, considering that the entity cannot transfer the rights to a commercial name, except in conjunction with a holistic property complex, in this case his waiver of such rights or, if the entity does not carry out activities for the denomination of which the commercial name has been used, it is expedient for such a subject to provide the right to a paid alienation of the rights to a commercial name. ; Досліджено теоретичні питання щодо майнових прав інтелектуальної власності на комерційне найменування. Проаналізовано чинне законодавство щодо правового регулю­вання цих відносин, теоретичні позиції з предмета дослідження та судову практику стосовно вирішення спорів, пов'язаних із захистом майнових прав на комерційні найменування. Встановлено, що перелік майнових прав інтелектуальної власності на комерційне найме­нування не є вичерпним, оскільки у законі, окрім названих прав, ідеться про інші (непоіменовані) права, що встановлені законом. Доведено, що право на використання комерційного найменування охоплює низку різних дій суб'єкта, спрямованих на досягнення максимальної ефективності в господарському обороті під власним комерційним наймену­ванням. Окреслено способи застосування права на використання комерційного найменування. Звернуто увагу на те, що використання комерційного найменування за своїм змістом найбільш широке та абстрактне, і може знаходити конкретний вираз через реальні способи та засоби використання. Доведено, що при здійснені прав на комерційне найменування суб'єкт опирається на загально­дозвільний принцип, діє з урахуванням загальних меж реалізації суб'єктивних прав та має ураховувати загальні засади цивільного права, зафіксовані в ЦК України.

Following a brief historical introduction and a discussion of different types of commercial policy, this paper reviews the arguments for and against trade protection. In the bench-mark case of a competitive, small, open economy, free trade maximizes aggregate national welfare, although some individual groups will lose unless compensation is actually paid. Guidelines for policy include the uniform reduction and concertina rules for tariff cuts, and the principle of targeting: corrective measures should be applied as close to the source of the distortion as possible. Relaxing the bench-mark assumptions allows exceptions to the case for free trade: optimal tariffs to manipulate world prices; strategic tariffs or export subsidies when home firms engage in oligopolistic competition with foreign rivals; and infant industry protection to allow home firms benefit from learning by doing. Protection can also raise the growth rate, though it is less likely to raise welfare in a growing economy. Overall, with due allowance for some ambiguity, both theoretical arguments and empirical evidence suggest a pragmatic case for free trade. Finally, the paper notes the political pressures for and against protection, and the role of international institutions such as the GATT in underpinning moves towards freer trade.

The present article analyzes commercial trade between the European Union (EU) and Andean Community of Nations (CAN), emphasizing in Generalized Preference System (SPG) implementation, during the period 1994 – 2007. As a result, there is evidence that the Andean GPS as a European policy of international cooperation, has not satisfactory accomplished the main objectives of its formulation, mainly because of the level of asymmetries and dysfunctions presented along its implementation. Also, the institutionalism of the CAN, the characteristics of intraregional commercial exchange and the extension of its market were analyzed for the same period of time. Finally, the methodology used for this research was the description and critical analysis based on statistical data from official sources and International Organizations, as well as, theories related to the topic. ; El presente artículo, analiza los intercambios comerciales entre la Unión Europea (UE) y la Comunidad Andina de Naciones (CAN), con especial énfasis en la aplicación del Sistema de Preferencias Generalizado (SPG), en el periodo 1994 – 2007. Como resultado, se evidencia que el SPG andino, como política europea de cooperación internacional, no ha cumplido satisfactoriamente los objetivos primordiales de su formulación, principalmente por el grado de asimetrías y disfunciones que ha presentado a lo largo de su aplicación. También se analizó la institucionalidad de la CAN y las características del intercambio comercial intrarregional y la ampliación de su mercado en el mismo período. Finalmente como metodología para la elaboración de dicha investigación, se utilizó la descripción y análisis crítico basado en el estudio de estadísticas de fuentes oficiales y Organismos Internacionales, así como de teorías referidas al tema. ; Neste artigo analisam os intercâmbios comerciais entre a União Européia (EU) e a Comunidade Andina de Nações (CAN), enfatizando na aplicação do Sistema de Preferências Generalizado (SPG) no período 1994-2007. Ë evidente que o SPG andino, como política européia de cooperação internacional, não tem cumprido a gosto os objetivos principais de sua formulação, sobretudo pelo grau de assimetrias e disfunções apresentado durante sua aplicação. Assim mesmo, analisam-se a institucionalização da CAN e as características do intercâmbio comercial intra-regional e a ampliação de seu mercado nesse mesmo período. Por último, como metodologia para levar a cabo a pesquisa, utilizou-se a descrição e a análise crítica baseado no estudo de estatísticas de fontes oficiais e organismos internacionais, assim como teorias referidas ao tema.