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The German welfare state in gendered welfare state analyses is widely recognized as a strong male breadwinner model: its institutions sup port the traditional division of labour and low female labour force participation. This article seeks to show that due to diminishing political support this model is eroding. The article starts from the assumption that the welfare state is a mediator between dy namic social and economic requirements. Therefore social policy regulations need to be adjusted continuously. This need has intensi fied over the last decade because of growing global economic competition and the collapse of the East German economy. The way social policymakers reacted to this pressure for reform shows no active support for the poli cies that help to maintain women's economic dependency on 'breadwinners'. This will be demonstrated by an analysis of the positions of the political actors involved in two major pension reforms, one in 1989 and one in 1997. According to their public statements these actors were motivated by three factors: firstly, they agreed that retrenchment measures were necessary; secondly, the intention to secure generational reproduction by improving carers' independent rights was dominant; thirdly, reforms were motivated by the inten tion to make the pension system more just. The direction of the reforms is to reduce the economic attractiveness of marriage and to create stronger incentives to be employed.

A commonly used typology in the cross-national study of gendered working time depicts variation in the strength of a 'male-breadwinner' model. Yet the question at the heart of these comparisons is actually con-cerned with why differences in women's bread winning exist cross-nationally. In addition, there is a growing awareness of the need to explore variation in gender contracts within societies too, and class is a fundamental indi-cator of heterogeneity in women's bread winning. In this context, this paper investi-gates two societies characterized by somewhat different strength male-breadwinner models: Britain and Denmark. It examines the extent to which women can be seen to be 'bread-winner' workers in the household, and what policies facilitate or impede their bread winning in the two societies. It is argued that although gender-based breadwinner models usefully depict broad differences in societal work patterns, their relative neglect of non-gendered dimensions of inequality - such as class - lead to their underestimating variety in women's experiences within societies and neglecting such non-gender-based factors which may unite women cross-nationally.

Abstract
This article begins by discussing some of the main approaches that have emerged to gender and family policy, before proceeding to discuss more modern trends. It begins by discussing institutional approaches, such as the male-breadwinner model, defamilialisation, degenderisation. Then it discusses cultural approaches, such as the national ideals of care, gendered moral rationalities, and Hakim's preference theory. Then this article continues by briefly discussing attempts to broaden the discussion by bringing in children (including through the capabilities approach) and by adding an intersectional perspective.

Milk processing as women's work in agrarian society -- The transformation of dairying in the late nineteenth century -- Industrial restructuring and masculinization in the early twentieth century -- Gendered claims to knowledge and technical expertise -- The labor market and the workplace -- Professionalization and the Swedish Association of Dairymen -- Gender at work -- Agrarian womanhood and the two-breadwinner model.

The historically dominant male breadwinner & female carer model in West Germany has resulted in comparably low female employment rates & a gender-structured labor market. Since the 1970s, the decline of traditional patterns & sectors of male employment has been accompanied by the expansion of the female-dominated service sector. Supplemented by women's higher educational attainment, a pluralism of household forms, & German unification, the result has been constant growth in female employment. With more working mothers, the question of combining work & family has provoked policy responses that, in West Germany, have mainly centered on family leave policies. In addressing the question of whether these policies have resulted in a more equitable sharing of paid & family work, this article presents longitudinal empirical data on the working patterns of women entitled to different forms of family leave. These show how changing regulations have led to the institutionalization of a "baby break" for younger women & to the promotion of labor market exclusion. 1 Table, 1 Figure, 41 References. Adapted from the source document.

abstract The historically dominant male breadwinner and female carer model in West Germany has resulted in comparably low female employment rates and a gender‐structured labor market. Since the 1970s, the decline of traditional patterns and sectors of male employment has been accompanied by the expansion of the female‐dominated service sector. Supplemented by women's higher educational attainment, a pluralism of household forms, and German unification, the result has been constant growth in female employment. With more working mothers, the question of combining work and family has provoked policy responses that, in West Germany, have mainly centered on family leave policies. In addressing the question of whether these policies have resulted in a more equitable sharing of paid and family work, this article presents longitudinal empirical data on the working patterns of women entitled to different forms of family leave. These show how changing regulations have led to the institutionalization of a "baby break" for younger women and to the promotion of labor market exclusion.

Based on a newly developed framework, this study examines the responses made by the government to both the male-breadwinner model and the adult worker model. It sheds new insights into possible ways of assisting women to achieve secure retirement .