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PurposeThis work focuses on the interoperability of the blockchain from the viewpoint of its technological evolution in the wider context of supply chain systems. Interoperability concerns the most since it is among the most persevering problems in the process of blockchain adaptation. The study aims to trace and pinpoint all the different methods that affect the interoperability of blockchains, gather all the obtainable evidence and recognize gaps in between the applicable approaches mentioned across the contemporary academic literature.Design/methodology/approachAn analysis is done of seven interoperability approaches based on their relevance, practical usefulness and adoption processes concerning the blockchain. Mainly, this work examines interoperability from several different perspectives. An interoperability modular decomposition via a layered model has been defined through the level of conceptual interoperability (LCIM) and level of information system interoperability (LISI), which represent the most popular metrics with regard to assessing the level of interoperability from a qualitative level.FindingsGenerally, the findings of this work are directed in two major aspects: Firstly, it expands the research around blockchain technology interoperability by providing crucial background information and pinpointing important connotations for both industrial and academic environments. It also defines and analyzes several different approaches toward the blockchain platform's interoperability. Secondly, it also identifies and proposes several scenarios that take advantage of multiple blockchain application approaches, highlights various issues and challenges to the evolution of interoperability standards and solutions and indicates the desired areas of further research.Originality/valueAn essential aspect of the originality of this paper is that, contrary to other work contributions, this work summarized the different interoperability approaches for blockchain in supply chain systems. Mainly, seven approaches were discussed for practitioners and researchers, and the open issues and future research direction were considered.

Entrepreneurs, enterprises, and governments are using distributed ledger technology (DLT) as a component of complex information systems, and therefore interoperability capabilities are required. Interoperating DLTs enables network effects, synergies and, similarly to the rise of the Internet, it unlocks the full potential of the technology. However, due to the novelty of the area, interoperability mechanisms (IM) are still not well understood, as interoperability is studied in silos. Consequently, choosing the proper IM for a use case is challenging. Our paper has three contributions: first, we systematically study the research area of DLT interoperability by dissecting and analyzing previous work. We study the logical separation of interoperability layers, how a DLT can connect to others (connection mode), the object of interoperation (interoperation mode), and propose a new categorization for IMs. Second, we propose the first interoperability assessment for DLTs that systematically evaluates the interoperability degree of an IM. This framework allows comparing the potentiality, compatibility, and performance among solutions. Finally, we propose two decision models to assist in choosing an IM, considering different requirements. The first decision model assists in choosing the infrastructure of an IM, while the second decision model assists in choosing its functionality.

Blockchain can potentially be appropriated as a social computing technology, which enables transactions across people and artefacts via a large socio-technical information infrastructure constituted by the actions of multiple people and computers. However, Blockchain is not a social computing technology
a priori
; instead to emerge as one, much effort and work is required to radically transform existing domains, including wrestling with traditions, standards, and legacy. In this article, we expand on previous work on Blockchain as an information infrastructure, and on the notion of
infrastructural grind.
Infrastructural grind allows us to analytically explore how the emerging Blockchain technology is appropriated into established business domains, in our case the shipping industry. We present ethnographic data unpacking three different accounts of infrastructural grind taking place at the intersection of the shipping and the Blockchain information infrastructures. The results demonstrate that infrastructural grind occurs as a result of various infrastructuring activities taking place at different intersections between the two infrastructures and is constituted of the sum of these activities. We propose a framework in which infrastructural grind is constituted of three entangled dimensions:
permeability, interoperability
, and
velocity
. These socio-technical dimensions relate to infrastructural properties such as legacy, embeddedness, and standards, as well as to technical properties of specific solutions deployed at specific points of infrastructural grind. Our analysis shows that these dimensions are enacted differently along the shipping supply chain, and depending on the dynamic interplay between them at various points of infrastructural grind. At different points in time, the infrastructural grind between Blockchain and the shipping domain will thus manifest itself differently and at differential velocity.

As a technology, Blockchain will make an important contribution to organizing differently within profit, non-profit organizations and society. The aim of this reorganization is to reduce the pressure of regulation and work by digitally regulating the trust that is now often given by third parties. In addition, Blockchain goes over and through various processes, as a result of which third parties are no longer directly necessary due to the different organization of trust. What does organizing differently now mean for the use of coordination as a mechanism to steer organizations? This article, based on a thorough literature study will give an answer to this question. We looked at how coordination problems can be minimized by organizing it differently. Organizing differently here means no longer working from a central network but collaborating within a decentralized network with Blockchain as the technology. The interaction between the type of organization, the organizational policy, the processes, applications and infrastructure is essential in this respect, in which interoperability plays an important role. Blockchain ultimately contributes to reducing the response time of organizations, which in turn increases their adaptive capacity and therefore makes it possible to respond more quickly to changing market conditions, which are currently also occurring in the healthcare sector.

The beginning of the 21st century shows us an increase in the complexity of all systems. Some states have already implemented national strategies for artificial intelligence and the action plan for high technologies to solve problems of different natures. The challenge of the century is to find new solutions permanently that contribute to the adaptation and development of organizations. In the last decade, blockchain has won the interest of several governments around the world for implementing this new technology in the public sector. In this paper we want to analyze how this tool has been applied in various states and how it can contribute to solving data management problems. Our purpose is to show the importance of using blockchain for interoperability in public organizations in Romania. The use of blockchain involves a new reform of the public administration and the adoption of new regulations.

El sector público español está viviendo una verdadera revolución como consecuencia de la adopción generalizada de la administración electrónica. Se trata de un cambio no solo tecnológico, sino organizativo y cultural. La introducción de herramientas tecnológicas está derivando en profundos cambios internos en el modelo organizativo de las administraciones y en sus relaciones. Por otra parte, los sistemas de redes distribuidas basadas en tecnologías de cadena de bloques (blockchain technology en su denominación anglosajona), están emergiendo como un cambio disruptivo en el ámbito de la tecnología. Sin embargo, aunque ya está impactando profundamente en muchos ámbitos, como en la economía o en el comercio, su aplicación en el ámbito gubernamental y administrativo es un área que está todavía por desarrollar. ¿Realmente puede aportar beneficios en esta materia? ¿Cómo podría aplicarse esta tecnología en los procesos administrativos? Para conocer cuánto de cierto hay en este fenómeno y qué beneficios puede aportar al mundo de la administración electrónica, este trabajo hace un análisis del funcionamiento de las redes basadas en cadenas de bloques, con la red Bitcoin como principal referente y una revisión de la todavía escasa bibliografía existente en esta materia. Posteriormente, analiza los recursos tecnológicos en los que se basan los sistemas de administración electrónica desplegados en la actualidad para ver cómo pueden verse beneficiados con las funcionalidades provistas por blockchain. Finalmente, se propone el uso de una red basada en cadena de bloques como registro común, centralizado y fehaciente de los expedientes tramitados por las administraciones públicas y los documentos que los integran. ; El sector públic espanyol està vivint una veritable revolució com a conseqüència de l'adopció generalitzada de l'administració electrònica. Es tracta d'un canvi no només tecnològic, sinó organitzatiu i cultural. La introducció d'eines tecnològiques està derivant en profunds canvis interns en el model organitzatiu de les administracions i en les seves relacions. D'altra banda, els sistemes de xarxes distribuïdes basades en tecnologies de cadenes de blocs (blockchain technology en la seva denominació anglesa), estan emergint com un canvi disruptiu en l'àmbit de la tecnologia. Tot i que ja està impactant profundament en molts àmbits, com l'economia o el comerç, la seva aplicació en l'àmbit governamental i administratiu és una àrea que està encara per desenvolupar. Realment pot aportar beneficis en aquesta matèria? Com es podria aplicar aquesta tecnologia en processos administratius? Per conèixer quanta veritat hi ha en aquest fenomen i quins beneficis pot aportar al món de l'administració electrònica, aquest treball fa una anàlisi del funcionament de les xarxes basades en blockchain, amb la xarxa Bitcoin com a principal referent i una revisió de l'encara escassa bibliografia existent en aquesta matèria. Posteriorment, analitza els recursos tecnològics en què es basen els sistemes d'administració electrònica desplegats en l'actualitat per veure com es poden veure beneficiats amb les funcionalitats proveïdes per blockchain. Finalment, es proposa l'ús d'una xarxa basada en cadena de blocs com a registre comú, centralitzat i fefaent dels expedients tramitats per les administracions públiques i els documents que els integren. ; The Spanish public sector is experiencing a real revolution as a result of the widespread adoption of electronic administration. It is a change not only technological, but organizational and cultural. The introduction of technological tools is leading to profound internal changes in the organizational model of administrations and their relationships. On the other hand, distributed network systems based on blockchain technologies are emerging as a disruptive technological change. However, although it is already having a profound impact in many areas, such as the economy or trade, its application in e-government and administrative field is still in development. Can it really bring benefits in this matter? How could this technology be applied in administrative processes? To know how much truth there is in this phenomenon and what benefits it can bring to the world of e-government, this work makes an analysis of networks based on blockchain, with the Bitcoin as the main reference and a review of the still scarce bibliography existing in this matter. Subsequently, it analyzes the technological resources on which the e-administration systems currently deployed are based to see how they can benefit from the functionalities provided by blockchain. Finally, the use of a blockchain based network is proposed as a common, centralized and reliable record of the files processed by public administrations and the documents that comprise them.

Cover -- Half Title -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- Acknowledgment -- Authors -- 1. Introduction -- 1.1. Approach to Development of Smart Cities -- 1.2. Digital City Operating System - A Blockchain Perspective -- 1.2.1. Users -- 1.2.2. Applications -- 1.2.3. Assistive Layer -- 1.2.3.1. Blockchain Analytics Engine -- 1.2.4. Hardware/Sensor Network -- 1.3. Conclusion -- References -- 2. Blockchain and Smart City Fundamentals -- 2.1. Introduction -- 2.1.1. Blocks -- 2.1.2. Miners -- 2.1.3. Nodes -- 2.1.3.1. Types of Blockchain Nodes -- 2.1.3.2. Blockchain Nodes Security -- 2.2. Fundamentals of Blockchain -- 2.2.1. The Blockchain's Cryptography -- 2.2.2. Hash Functions -- 2.2.3. Public Key Cryptography -- 2.2.4. Blockchain Construction -- 2.2.5. Chaining -- 2.2.6. Blockchain Networks -- 2.2.7. Blockchain Peer-to-Peer Network -- 2.2.8. Blockchain Consensus -- 2.2.9. Fundamentals of Consensus -- 2.2.10. Consensus Implementation -- 2.2.11. Proof of Work -- 2.2.12. Proof of Stake -- 2.2.13. Consensus Attacks -- 2.3. Permissionless vs. Permissioned Blockchains -- 2.3.1. Types of Blockchains -- 2.4. Smart Contracts -- 2.4.1. Introduction to Smart Contracts -- 2.4.2. Smart Contracts Working Principle -- 2.4.3. Examples of Smart Contracts -- 2.4.4. Uses of Smart Contracts -- 2.4.5. Advantages of Smart Contracts -- 2.4.6. Limitations of Smart Contracts -- 2.5. Blockchain Applications -- 2.6. Smart City and Blockchain Technology -- 2.7. Application of Blockchain in Smart Cities -- 2.8. Conclusion -- References -- 3. Infrastructure -- 3.1. Introduction -- 3.2. Smart City Infrastructure -- 3.2.1. Sub-Division of Smart City Infrastructure -- 3.3. Interoperability -- 3.3.1. Interoperability Issues -- 3.3.2. Smart City Infrastructural Services -- 3.4. Infrastructural Design -- 3.4.1. Smart Homes -- 3.4.2. Waste Management.

The utilization of blockchain technology (BT) has arisen as a viable remedy for tackling crucial challenges in financial system (bitcoin) and the healthcare sector, including data security, interoperability, and transparency. The integration of BT in the healthcare industry has significant promise, but it is a complex process that is impacted by several variables. This systematic review seeks to provide a thorough comprehension of the models, obstacles, and forthcoming research pertaining to the use of BT in the healthcare sector. The paper examines the fundamental ideas and models that are crucial in comprehending the implementation of BT in the healthcare sector. The theories encompassed in this list are the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), Innovation Diffusion Theory, Trust and Transparency Theories. These theories together provide a systematic framework for evaluating the process of adoption. The systematic review results provide an overview of the present state of blockchain implementation in the healthcare sector. The challenges that have been highlighted include obstacles related to regulations, difficulties in achieving interoperability, concerns over data privacy, and the need for a strong and reliable infrastructure. Furthermore, the advantages of using BT, including heightened data protection and increased healthcare services.