Suchergebnisse

4 figures, 2 tables.-- Supplementary information. ; The production of upgraded bio-oils by an integrated process using a mixture of calcined limestone and sand as a heat carrier with catalytic properties was experimentally studied at pilot scale. The integrated process consisted of two main steps: biomass catalytic pyrolysis in an Auger reactor for bio-oil production and char combustion in a fluidised-bed combustor for heat carrier heating and regeneration. A temperature of 450 °C was fixed as an optimum value to carry out the catalytic pyrolysis step. Temperatures ranging from 700 to 800 °C were assessed in the char combustor. Process simulation demonstrated that solid recirculation from the combustor to the pyrolysis reactor was marginally affected in this temperature range. However, an optimum char combustion temperature of 800 °C was selected from an environmental point of view, since lower polyaromatic emissions were detected whilst NOx emissions were kept under the legislation limits. Under designated conditions, several pyrolysis-combustion cycles were carried out. A moderate deactivation of the catalyst by partial carbonation was found. This fact makes necessary the incorporation of a purge and an inlet of fresh heat carrier in order to maintain the bio-oil quality in the integrated process. ; Authors thank to Spanish MINECO and European Union FEDER funds for providing support for this work (projects CTQ2012-37984-C02-01 and ENE2015-68320-R). ; Peer reviewed

4 Figuras.- 7 Tablas.- Material suplementario disponible en línea en http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4344/9/12/992/s1 ; The catalytic co-pyrolysis of grape seeds and waste tyres for the production of high-quality bio-oils was studied in a pilot-scale Auger reactor using different low-cost Ca-based catalysts. All the products of the process (solid, liquid, and gas) were comprehensively analysed. The results demonstrate that this upgrading strategy is suitable for the production of better-quality bio-oils with major potential for use as drop-in fuels. Although very good results were obtained regardless of the nature of the Ca-based catalyst, the best results were achieved using a high-purity CaO obtained from the calcination of natural limestone at 900 °C. Specifically, by adding 20 wt% waste tyres and using a feedstock to CaO mass ratio of 2:1, a practically deoxygenated bio-oil (0.5 wt% of oxygen content) was obtained with a significant heating value of 41.7 MJ/kg, confirming its potential for use in energy applications. The total basicity of the catalyst and the presence of a pure CaO crystalline phase with marginal impurities seem to be key parameters facilitating the prevalence of aromatisation and hydrodeoxygenation routes over the de-acidification and deoxygenation of the vapours through ketonisation and esterification reactions, leading to a highly aromatic biofuel. In addition, owing to the CO2-capture effect inherent to these catalysts, a more environmentally friendly gas product was produced, comprising H2 and CH4 as the main components. ; This research was funded by MINECO and FEDER for their financial support (Project ENE2015-68320-R) and the Regional Government of Aragon (DGA) under the research groups call. ; Peer reviewed

9 pages, 6 figures, 3 tables.--Available online 8 December 2013 ; Co-pyrolysis of forestry wastes and waste tyres is carried out using different facilities: a fixed bed reactor and a continuous auger reactor. Remarkably, only one phase is found in the liquid fraction, which is not achieved by mixture of the pure liquids. In addition, positive effects between waste tyre and biomass are evidenced, being more notable even synergetic in the auger reactor. It is found that whilst acidity, density and oxygen content decrease, pH and calorific value increase with respect to the merely biomass pyrolysis liquid, leading to upgraded bio-oil. Upgrading process is linked to the presence of radical interactions between waste tyres and biomass pyrolysis products. In addition, it is observed that the addition of waste tyres to the feedstock blend is significantly decreasing the amount of aldehydes and phenolic compounds, which is beneficial for improving the stability of the new bio-oils. © 2013 Elsevier B.V. ; The authors would like to thank the Aragon Regional Government (DGA) and the Caixa Bank for financial support (Project GA-LC-015/ 2011). The authors also thank MINECO and FEDER funds for providing partial support for this work (project CTQ2012-37984-C02-01). Juan D. Martínez thanks the Fundación Carolina for his fellowship as well as the Enlaza-Mundos Program. Part of the research carried out at UAB has been funded by MICINN (CTQ2009-13873). ; Peer Reviewed

Considers proposed demonstration nuclear power plants to be built as cooperative ventures between the AEC and private companies. ; Record is based on bibliographic data in CIS US Congressional Committee Hearings Index. Reuse except for individual research requires license from Congressional Information Service, Inc. ; Indexed in CIS US Congressional Committee Hearings Index Part VII ; Considers proposed demonstration nuclear power plants to be built as cooperative ventures between the AEC and private companies. ; Mode of access: Internet.

The trends in waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) generation shows that their volume constantly increases, while the current waste management technologies have proven to be insufficient in order to meet the strict criteria and the new legislations of the European Union. Pyrolysis and thermal treatment in general could be a valuable solution for closing the loop of materials and could contribute to the energy demands of modern society. Pyrolysis as a process and combination of other pre-treatment techniques was investigated with a focus on energy production, metal separation and feedstock recycling. In this work, several fractions of real WEEE have been tested based on the process requirements and the focus of each individual study. Firstly, the investigation was focused on the primary products of the process, revealing most of the environmental pollutants as well as the valuable monomers that can enhance feedstock recycling. A correlation of the process' final temperature with the evolution of the major products was performed. Moreover, a conceptual reaction mechanism of Bisphenol A decomposition was suggested based on the process products. Then, a reduction of the bromine content of the initial WEEE fraction was achieved by solvent extraction pre-treatment. Isopropanol and toluene were tested as solvents capable of removing one of the main flame retardants at WEEE fractions, Tetrabromobisphenol A. The results indicate that the reduction of bromine was successfully performed even at ~37%. This result was further confirmed by the reduction or total removal of brominated species in the pyrolysis products. The toluene seems to be a valuable option for the pre-treatment, since it can be provided by the pyrolysis process itself, making the entire treatment more sustainable and in accordance with the concept of circular economy. Density separators used in the sorting of WEEE materials usually produced high moisture content fractions. As soon as those fractions follow thermal treatment, the moisture will ...

Biomass has been used as an energy source since ancient times but have the last centenary been replaced by fossil alternatives. This is causing of climate changes and emptying oil reservoirs. Concerns around the negative effects of fossil fuels has resulted in new interest around biomass and other renewable energy sources. In Norway it will be forbidden to use fossil fuels for heating purposes by 2020, this in combination with economic incentives for installation of renewable alternatives from the government has resulted in a growth of wood firing heat systems around the country. On farms, where the heat demand is highly dependent on season, big boilers are often installed to meet the demand at the most critical conditions like cold winters or when drying the agricultural yields. The goal of this study is to investigate pyrolysis reactors as an alternative to wood burners. The pyrolysis process yields gas, pyrolysis oil, char and heat dependent on the operational conditions. This is done by using mathematical models to investigate the conditions that produces the most and least heat and analyze the dominant yields under these conditions. Two mathematical models are investigated. One is describing a slow pyrolysis auger reactor and the other is describing a fast pyrolysis reactor where a hot inert gas is used to heat the feedstock. Both models are solving the heat equation with a kinetic scheme implemented. The kinetics are solved using a finite rate scheme for both models and the heat equation is simplified into 2 spatial dimensions for the slow pyrolysis auger model and 1 spatial dimension for the fast pyrolysis model. Features added to the models which is uncommon for pyrolysis models are simulations of moist feedstock and a calculation of the time volatiles stay hot and keeps decomposing inside the reactor. The fast pyrolysis reactor model predicts an overall low released heat which is decreasing with temperature. This reactor does not stand as a valid alternative to a wood burner. The slow pyrolysis auger reactor predicts the lowest energy released pr. unit time at low temperatures where char and pyrolysis oil are the main yields. In the scenario where the highest energy released pr. unit time is preferred, gas is the main yield. The slow pyrolysis reactor has the highest time consumption and char yield on the cost of pyrolysis oil, but also a much higher amount of released heat pr. unit time as a result of the construction of the reactor. These findings tell that under low energy demand, pyrolysis oil and char can be produced and at high energy demands, gas is the main yield. This kind of reactor may be a valid option to wood burners. For the highest possible oil yield, this work predicts that temperatures around 1100K, low cooldown time of volatiles and fast pyrolysis is the preferred configuration. The highest possible char yield is obtained by low temperatures, high volatile cooldown times and slow pyrolysis. For a high gas yield, high temperature, fast pyrolysis and long cooldown time of volatiles is preferred. The effect of moist is shown to have a negligible effect on the yields at a dry feedstock basis, but a huge impact on the energy consumption. The cooldown time for volatiles are shown to be the main effect of pyrolysis oil and gas yields at temperatures above 800K. Longer cooldown times results in a higher amount of oil cracked into mainly gas and a small fraction of char. ; Biomasse har blitt brukt som energikilde siden oldtiden, men har det siste århundre blitt erstattet med fossile alternativer. Dette forårsaker klimaendringer og tømming av oljereservoar. Bekymringer knyttet til de negative effektene rundt bruk av fossile energikilder har resultert i ny interesse rundt biomasse og andre fornybare energikilder. I Norge vil det bli forbudt å bruke fossil olje som energikilde innen 2020, dette i kombinasjon med økonomiske insentiver for installasjon av fornybare alternativer fra staten har resultert i en vekst av vedfyringssystemer rundt om i landet. På gårdsbruk, hvor behovet for varme avhenger mye av sesong blir det ofte installert store fyringsanlegg for å dekke behovet de få ukene i året hvor det er kaldest eller et behov for å tørke avlinger. Målet med denne oppgaven er å undersøke pyrolysereaktorer som et alternativ til vedfyringsanlegg. Pyrolyseprosessen gir gass, pyrolyseolje, kull og varme avhengig av driftsforholdene. Undersøkelsen gjøres ved å bruke matematiske modeller til å forutsi hvilke driftsbetingelser som gir mest og minst varme, samt hvilket produkt som produseres av prosessen under disse driftsbetingelsene. To matematiske modeller er undersøkt. Den ene skal beskrive en langsom augerreaktor og den andre en hurtig pyrolysereaktor hvor en varm inert gass brukes for å varme biomassen. Begge modellene løser varmelikningen med en kinetisk algoritme implementert. Kinetikken løses ved bruk av en 'finite rate' fremgangsmåte og varmelikningen er forenklet til en dimensjon for den hurtige pyrolysereaktoren og to dimensjoner for den langsomme augerreaktoren. Nye beregninger lagt til modellen som er uvanlig for pyrolysemodeller simulering av fuktig biomasse og tiden det fra gassene blir produsert i reaktoren til de blir kjølt ned. Den raske reaktormodellen forutsier en generell lav frigjort varme som avtar med temperaturen. Denne reaktoren står ikke som et gyldig alternativ til en vedbrenner. Den langsomme reaktormodellen forutsier mer frigjort varme pr. tidsenhet som stiger ved høyere driftstemperatur. Ved lav driftstemperatur er biokull og pyrolyseolje de mest produserte produktene. Ved høyere driftstemperatur vil mer varme frigjøres og en størst andel gass vil bli produsert. Disse funnene forteller at ved lavt behov for varme kan biokull og olje produseres. Dersom varmebehovet stiger kan gass produseres. Denne typen reaktor kan være et alternativ til en vedbrenner. For høyest mulig utbytte av pyrolyseolje forutsier modellene at temperaturer rund 1100K, rask nedkjøling av de produserte gassene og rask pyrolyse som de beste driftsbetingelsene. For høyest mulig utbytte av biokull er lav temperatur, lang nedkjølingstid for produserte gasser og langsom pyrolyse foretrukket. Gass blir produsert i størst grad ved høye temperaturer, lang nedkjølingstid for de produserte gassene og rask pyrolyse. Fukt i biomassen er vist å ikke påvirke hva som blir produsert nevneverdig, men det har en stor effekt på energiforbruket. Avkjølingstiden for de produserte gassene er vist å være den viktigste enkeltfaktoren for pyrolyseolje og gassutbytte ved temperaturer over 800K. Lengre nedkjølingstid resulterte i høyere nedbryting av pyrolyseolje til hovedsakelig gass og små mengder biokull. ; submittedVersion ; M-MF

Plaintiff contracted with the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) to construct a reactor testing station in Idaho. The contract gave the contracting officer and the head of the AEC (or his representative, the Board of Contract Appeals) authority to make findings of fact as to "disputes concerning questions of fact arising under this contract." Plaintiff submitted various claims in accordance with this disputes clause. Dissatisfied with the resulting administrative decisions, plaintiff brought an action in the Court of Claims for damages resulting from alleged breach of contract by defendant. The subjects of the alleged breach were the same as the claims presented under the disputes clause. The case was referred to a trial Commissioner for the taking of testimony and for a report. Defendant contended that the findings of fact of the AEC Board of Contract Appeals were final and binding upon the Court of Claims. Plaintiff maintained that an action for breach was not a dispute "arising under the contract," and hence introduction of de novo evidence before the Court of Claims was permissible. From an order by the Trial Commissioner favorable to plaintiff, defendant appealed. Held: Findings of fact by a duly authorized administrative body are not final and binding upon the Court of Claims in an action for breach of contract, even though the alleged breaching conduct was the subject matter of a claim processed under the standard Disputes clause of a government contract, and de novo evidence is admissible in order for the Court of Claims to make an independent judicial decision on the merits of the alleged breach. Utah Constr. & Mining Co. v. United States, 339 F.2d 606 (Ct. Cl. 1964), petition for cert. filed, 34, U.S.L. WEEK 3072 (U.S. Aug. 9, 1965) (No. 440).

Tras haber abordado la arena doméstica en el primer artículo, en esta segunda entrega sobre las Guerras de Obama se presentan los principales temas de su agenda internacional, prestando atención a las iniciativas adoptadas y al grado de éxito alcanzado en las mismas. El análisis se constituye de una selección de temas de índole político-diplomática y estratégico-militar. Por tanto, y dado que es lógico que como primera potencia mundial Estados Unidos cuente con múltiples tópicos externos de interés, se brinda aquí tan sólo un recorte de los más significativos, esperando contribuya como un útil mapeo del accionar internacional de Washington en asuntos de alta política. Esta tarea requiere comenzar por la guerra en Afganistán, el complejo país multitribal que supo enmarañar a las tropas inglesas en el siglo XIX y a las soviéticas en el XX, y que se convirtió desde el primer día de la gestión Obama en su principal prioridad en política exterior. A causa de la crecientemente exitosa insurgencia talibana, el presidente se vio forzado de manera temprana a adoptar un conjunto de decisiones entre las que se han destacado el reemplazo de sus comandantes militares en el país asiático, el pedido de mayores fondos al Congreso, la difícil autorización para el envío de nuevas tropas (17 mil en febrero de 2009 y 30 mil más en diciembre del mismo año) y la exigencia de un compromiso más firme por parte de Islamabad en la lucha contra los insurgentes islámicos. Con los meses resultó evidente que la estrategia de fondo de la administración demócrata apuntaba (y apunta) al logro de avances militares sustanciales entre el 2010 y el 2011, en base al incremento de tropas (más de 100 mil), para negociar así desde una posición de fuerza con un enemigo debilitado y estabilizar definitivamente el país. En ella se destacan tres aspectos. En primer lugar, el reconocimiento de la administración de la imposibilidad de erradicar al movimiento Talibán en términos tanto políticos como militares. En segundo lugar, la importancia de los plazos: la Casa Blanca se comprometió públicamente a iniciar el retiro progresivo de efectivos militares a mitad del 2011 con la intención de concluir las operaciones bélicas en 2012, lo que mejoraría sustancialmente las posibilidades de reelección presidencial. Y en tercer lugar, el abandono del énfasis en la "democratización" de Afganistán, objetivo defendido por el ex presidente George W. Bush, a cambio de su "estabilización".Sin embargo, los obstáculos que entraña esta tarea resultan complejos. El desafío militar del Talibán y los operarios de Al-Qaeda coexiste con la incompetencia y corrupción propia del gobierno en Kabul (encabezado por Hamid Karzai), la inoperancia del ejército afgano y el auge del cultivo de opio y el tráfico de heroína, factores que en su conjunto socaban las bases políticas, económicas y de seguridad del orden pretendido por las fuerzas occidentales. La legitimidad internacional del esfuerzo bélico asimismo se encuentra en franco declive. Los gobiernos partícipes a través de la OTAN y su International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), han comenzado a cuestionar sus aportes a la campaña. Recientemente, Holanda inició la retirada de sus 2.000 efectivos, mientras que Canadá y Alemania planean respectivos pullouts de 3.000 y 4.400 soldados también para el 2011. Un factor importante detrás de estas decisiones es el considerable incremento de bajas militares que ya superan las 2.000, de las cuales 1.200 son estadounidenses (visitar para mayor información «http://icasualties.org/»).Además, el difícil escenario afgano ha contribuido notoriamente a la sangría de popularidad de Obama. Una encuesta de USA Today/Gallup de fines de julio arrojó como resultado que sólo el 36% de la ciudadanía norteamericana estaba de acuerdo con la estrategia de guerra frente al 48% registrado en febrero pasado. Dos sucesos puntuales que contribuyeron a esta caída fueron el escándalo y remoción del general Stanley McChrystal tras sus declaraciones en la revista Rolling Stone y la filtración de varias decenas de miles de documentos secretos del Pentágono aWikikeaks —algo así como los nuevos Pentagon Papers— de cuyo análisis se desprende como conclusión la existencia de logros escasos y grandes desaciertos en la conducción y ejecución de las operaciones.En el caso de Irak, debe recordarse que una de las promesas electorales centrales de Obama consistió en poner fin a la denominada guerra mediante el retiro de las tropas. Así, a fines de febrero de 2009 anunció el regreso de 90 mil soldados (de un contingente total de 142 mil) a partir del 31 de agosto de 2010. Esto le valió la crítica de miembros de ambos partidos del Congreso —entre los más notables, Nancy Pelosi, Carl Levin y John McCain— por dejar una cifra residual demasiado grande (entre 35 y 60 mil combatientes). Más allá de esto, era evidente que al momento de la decisión las condiciones políticas y de seguridad en el país árabe desde 2007 habían mejorado como resultado de la política del surge de Bushy la acertada conducción del general David Petraeus (actual comandante supremo en Afganistán). Recientemente, el presidente ratificó su medida de manera pública en medio de la incertidumbre ocasionada por el rebrote de violencia de los últimos meses. El alto mando militar iraquí, por su parte, solicitó el mantenimiento de las tropas estadounidenses hasta el 2020 y expresó su temor frente a una revitalizada insurgencia. Lamentablemente, esta preocupación parece confirmarse a la luz del últimoatentado suicida contra el centro de reclutamiento militar en Bagdad que causó 59 víctimas y 100 heridos —y que recuerda el ataque contra las torres Khobar de 1996 en Arabia Saudita. El país mesopotámico parece nuevamente alejarse de la ansiada pacificación y navegar hacia un futuro que puede llegar a dificultar la agenda externa de la Casa Blanca. En el frente de la lucha mayor contra Al-Qaeda, si bien la administración abandonó el rótulo oficial de Global War on Terror (GWOT) —otro recurso simbólico para distanciarse del gobierno anterior—, no ha cedido terreno. Por el contrario, ha llevado los esfuerzos a un nivel de clandestinidad superior al de la era Bush. Un artículo del New York Times de los últimos días detalla la naturaleza y el alcance de las iniciativas de la siguiente forma: "In roughly a dozen countries —from the deserts of North Africa, to the mountains of Pakistan, to former Soviet republics crippled by ethnic and religious strife— the United States has significantly increased military and intelligence operations, pursuing the enemy using robotic drones and commando teams, paying contractors to spy and training local operatives to chase terrorists.The White House has intensified the Central Intelligence Agency's drone missile campaign in Pakistan, approved raids against Qaeda operatives in Somalia and launched clandestine operations from Kenya. The administration has worked with European allies to dismantle terrorist groups in North Africa, efforts that include a recent French strike in Algeria. And the Pentagon tapped a network of private contractors to gather intelligence about things like militant hide-outs in Pakistan and the location of an American soldier currently in Taliban hands.While the stealth war began in the Bush administration, it has expanded under President Obama, who rose to prominence in part for his early opposition to the invasion of Iraq. Virtually none of the newly aggressive steps undertaken by the United States government have been publicly acknowledged. In contrast with the troop buildup in Afghanistan, which came after months of robust debate, for example, the American military campaign in Yemen began without notice in December and has never been officially confirmed."Con los ojos puestos en Afganistán, Irak, Irán y en las costas empetroladas del Golfo de México, esta guerra in the shadows avanza lejos de la atención pública estadounidense e internacional.Otro tema de agenda exterior donde la administración ha tenido contratiempos es el programa nuclear iraní. Obama ha demostrado un altísimo grado de ambigüedad en su acercamiento a Teherán. En un comienzo, como candidato se mostró dispuesto a dialogar sin condicionamientos con el gobierno de Ahmadinejad, señal de distensión que luego fue enfatizada como presidente con su decisión de privilegiar la vía diplomática para desviar el desarrollo de armas nucleares, aunque sin descartar el uso de la fuerza. Durante esta etapa más conciliadora, el director nacional de inteligencia Dennis Blair llegó a afirmar públicamente en marzo de 2009 que el país islámico "has not decided to press forward. to have a nuclear weapon on top of a ballistic missile", lo que generó la reacción del gobierno israelí. Pero desde mediados de ese año, sobrevino una etapa de mayor tensión bilateral, producto del histórico espiral de conflictoentre Estados Unidos e Irán, y ciertamente también de las presiones en Washington provenientes de Israel a través del doble canal de sus funcionarios y del lobby judeo-americano. (1) A partir de aquí, Estados Unidos retomó la iniciativa de las sanciones económicas. En junio pasado, el Consejo de Seguridad de Naciones Unidas adoptó la resolución 1929/10 mientras que la Casa Blanca semanas después convertía en ley una batería de represalias y prohibiciones para realizar negocios con Irán. Lo llamativo es que en los meses previos, por expreso pedido de Obama al presidente brasileño Lula, Brasil y Turquía se involucraron como intermediarios y alcanzaron con éxito un acuerdo para la salida de Irán de 1.200 kg. de uranio escasamente enriquecido a cambio de combustible para el reactor experimental de Teherán. El conflicto pareció así alcanzar un principio de resolución. Sin embargo, la diplomacia estadounidense una vez enterada del acuerdo optó por quitar su apoyo inicial, ocasionando un fuerte entredicho y el consecuente enfriamiento de las relaciones con Itamaraty. De esta forma, la política de la administración Obama hacia Irán se ha revestido de una ambigüedad y hasta un tono errático que le ha granjeado críticas tanto de sectores neoconservadores como de aquellos más pacifistas. En este trasfondo, continúan creciendo los rumores de un futuro ataque preventivo israelí a los complejos nucleares iraníes que traen consigo el fantasma de una guerra a gran escala en la región.Otro asunto conflictivo de la agenda externa ha sido la situación en Medio Oriente entre israelíes y palestinos. Desde un inicio, la candidatura de Obama en las primarias demócratas generó "amplias dudas" entre las organizaciones sionistas estadounidenses, que se cristalizaron en cadenas de e-mails y comentarios públicos de distintos referentes cuestionando su apoyo a Israel. «All the talk about change, but without defining what the change should be, is an opening for all kinds of mischief», señalaba en enero de 2008 Malcolm Hoenlein, líder de laConference of Presidents of Major Jewish Organizations (CPMJO). Por su parte, Obama se encargó de revertir esta imagen manifestando sorpresivamente su apoyo ese mismo año para que Jerusalén fuera la capital indivisible de Israel.Tras su asunción, efectivamente el presidente optó por preservar la estrecha alianza con Israel. Así, apoyó solapadamente su incursión en la Franja de Gaza entre fines de diciembre de 2008 y enero de 2009, aun cuando la opinión pública mundial condenó tal evento. Su propuesta general para el proceso de paz ha consistido en retomar proactivamente la idea de los "dos Estados" y para ello despachó de manera temprana a la región al enviado especial George Mitchell. Hasta la actualidad, la diplomacia norteamericana ha intentado cinco rondas de negociaciones indirectas con el objeto de restablecer el diálogo entre las partes. Pero la administración no se ha mostrado tan férreamente alineada con el accionar israelí como en épocas pasadas. Por el contrario, manifestó fuertemente sus reparos sobre la controvertida expansión de asentamientos en Jerusalén Este —en abierta contradicción con la apelación electoral original de una capital judía e indivisible. Y fue así que la intransigencia israelí en la materia condujo a un inesperado choque entre Obama y Netanyahu en marzo de 2010. De todas maneras, tras este episodio Obama ha buscado bajar el tono de la disputa con Tel Aviv, incluso luego del ataque a la flota humanitaria turca, destacando una vez más que "el vínculo de EE.UU. con Israel es inquebrantable". En definitiva, estos sucesos y posturas indican la incómoda coexistencia dentro de la administración de tendencias conservadoras y reformistas en relación al vínculo especial con Israel y el conflicto en Medio Oriente, cuyo balance parece inclinarse hacia las primeras.Estos temas han sido pues las prioridades centrales de la política exterior de la administración Obama. A ellas debe agregarse la relación con Rusia, especialmente en materia de desarme. Aquí la Casa Blanca desde un comienzo sí ha tenido en claro el rumbo: alcanzar un nuevo Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START), el cual fue finalmente firmado tras un año de negociaciones a comienzos de abril pasado en Praga y que espera ahora las correspondientes ratificaciones legislativas.Otro tema que ha acaparado atención creciente es Corea del Norte. Las tensiones en la península se dispararon primero en mayo de 2009 cuando Pyongyang realizó dos pruebas nucleares y el lanzamiento de misiles de corto alcance. Ya en 2010, la sombra de la guerra ha vuelto a posarse sobre el paralelo 38: el hundimiento de un buque surcoreano y la muerte de 46 tripulantes a causa de un torpedo del Norte en marzo, desató amenazas mutuas entre las dos Coreas y frente a ello la administración decidió estrechar la colaboración con Seúl en su preparación ante agresiones futuras.Y en este panorama, ¿qué atención ha ocupado América Latina? ¿Ha quedado una vez más out of the radar como se supo decir en los años de Bush? Ciertamente, el optimismo regional al comienzo de la presidencia de Obama se ha desvanecido tras una serie de hechos como las siete bases en suelo colombiano, el ambiguo involucramiento en el golpe de estado en Honduras y el reciente desplante a la diplomacia brasileña. En este contexto, por parte de Washington sólo se destacan las señales de apertura y flexibilización del bloqueo sobre Cuba, su preocupación frente al grave conflicto que afecta a México y su activismo en las tareas de rescate y reconstrucción de Haití tras el trágico terremoto de comienzos de 2010, para lo cual se han desplegado 10 mil soldados estadounidenses. Más allá de estos casos y de la predisposición de Obama durante la V Cumbre de las Américas a buscar "una alianza entre iguales" con los países de la región, no se observan grandes iniciativas ni el despliegue de una política hemisférica con ejes concretos. Como conclusión al reflexionar sobre la dimensión internacional de Estados Unidos en la era Obama, se advierte en primera instancia la complejidad de los desafíos abiertos a los que se enfrenta la Casa Blanca; muchos de los cuales parecen recobrar renovado ímpetu (como es el caso de Irak). Pero en todos (Afganistán, Irak, Irán y Medio Oriente) la posibilidad de una resolución exitosa se presenta demasiada alejada. Y esto, desde el punto de vista de la administración, genera un potencial escenario de múltiples fracasos que podría arruinar en los próximos años su agenda doméstica y todo su capital político (en similitud a lo sucedido con George W. Bush).En segundo lugar, se observa que la administración Obama aquí también ha debido amoldar sus anhelos de cambio a las realidades e imperativos emanados de su condición de superpotencia y de sus compromisos bélicos en el Gran Asia. Intentando dotar de lógica y justificación a este acomodamiento, en su discurso de recepción del Premio Nobel de la Paz el presidente sostuvo:"We must begin by acknowledging the hard truth: We will not eradicate violent conflict in our lifetimes. There will be times when nations –acting individually or in concert– will find the use of force not only necessary but morally justified.I make this statement mindful of what Martin Luther King Jr. said in this same ceremony years ago: 'Violence never brings permanent peace. It solves no social problem: it merely creates new and more complicated ones'. As someone who stands here as a direct consequence of Dr. King's life work, I am living testimony to the moral force of non-violence. I know there's nothing weak –nothing passive, nothing naïve– in the creed and lives of Gandhi and King.But as a head of state sworn to protect and defend my nation, I cannot be guided by their examples alone. I face the world as it is, and cannot stand idle in the face of threats to the American people. For make no mistake: Evil does exist in the world. A non-violent movement could not have halted Hitler's armies. Negotiations cannot convince al Qaeda's leaders to lay down their arms. To say that force may sometimes be necessary is not a call to cynicism –it is a recognition of history; the imperfections of man and the limits of reason". Si alguna virtud ofrecen estas palabras, la principal es reflejar como pocas lo han hecho la actual tensión manifiesta entre principios y pragmatismo que caracteriza la política exterior de la administración Obama.(1) Sobre este punto recomendamos la lectura del controvertido libro The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy de John Mearheimer y Stephen Walt (Nueva York:Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2007) y la visita del sitio electrónico de AIPAC, la principal organización del lobby: «http://www.aipac.org/» *Candidato doctoral, Universidad Nacional General San Martín (UNSAM).

SUMMARYA great changement was occurring after fell down the Berlin Wall in East Europe, in 1989.The countries had begun to new period with high debts and inflation by these changements.East European countries have a common feature by carry out the transition period politics by rapidly in this process. So, it was necessity on stabilization politics but not easy.At result, privatization and restructure got an importance.I – THEORICAL AND CONSEPTIONAL FRAME OF MARKET ECONOMYFree market economy has the same philosophy and idea with liberalism. Economical liberalism is defended the free competition, reducing the customs taxes, import freedom and resisted to interference of state on the economy.Classical economy's base is economical freedom and market economy. Market economy is relying on free competition and private enterprise. Price mechanism and world prices are important. Interference of state must be in minimum levels. Public sector must be reduced. Basic factors such as wage, capital and foreign currency must reflect the real market prices, must get an importance to external trade.1-DEVELOPMENT OF MARKET ECONOMY1.1. CLASSIC REVIEWFree trade, specialization only on one field, annihilate the obstacles such as customs and quotas, interferences of state on the market are most important according to Adam Smith, which lived in 18th century.A specialization between nations must be obtained according to Ricardo. So, it must be an exchange on the entire world. 1.2. NEO-CLASSIC REVIEWAlfred Marshall, Leon Walras and Carl Menger is an echol. The state must be more active to improve the poor part of community and must create the opportunities on the market, get the taxes from revenues and wealth, finance the education, health, park and city planning, defence the personal freedom, private property and open markets, manufacture the public commodities.1.3. ORDO-LIBERALISM REVIEWIt is different from classic liberalism. Economical regularity is social which emerges in an evident process, not natural. Social and juridical standards emerge the economical system.Price, monetarily stability, sciences, stability and durability on economical politics are important to emerging of market economy.Basic aim is bring to existence an economical constitution.2- BASIC ELEMENTS OF MARKET ECONOMYBasic factors are enterprising, competition, economical ideas and attitudes.Enterprising is a person which makes unity the manufacturing factors, makes direct the investments, begins to motion by utilize the signals from internal and external markets, gets the share on productivity and determines the firm profit. Basic aim is profit.Competition is social event, protects the personal, which works with high productivity against to personal, which works with low productivity, uses the sources most effectively. Buyer and seller number must be too much in this system. Competition is opposed to monopolization but necessity laws and politics have to support it. ECONOMICAL IDEAS AND ATTITUDESIt includes price, wage, interest, hire and foreign currency. Price system occurs freely according to rate of request and demand conditions. At this straight, firms and consumers must carry out their decisions freely.3- MARKET MECHANISM FLOW AND ROLE OF SOURCE DISTRIBUTIONConsumers and producers have activities on the market economy. The prices are determined according to the lowest cost and to the highest profit.Ideal special future is high productivity, low profit and high production. Competition reduces the profit to the lowest level.Main mechanism on free market is price. If the relative scarcity is enough, request and demand is more or less equal.Producers and consumers may have a decision according to the price indicator and request and demand. This case makes lead the manufacturing, increases the alternatives, also economical activities make an harmony against to conditions.The evident features of market economy are free decision, liberty on preferences, a great price mechanism and competition. So, economical stability is obtainable.Interferences may apply on the market economy for public health, regulations on economical activities, protect the consumers. These motions are generally precautions to control of drugs and drink manufacturing and consumption, annihilation of harmful on public health, growth the power on economic morals, make grow the quality, regulation on manufacturing and marketing. The state may meddle with economy to development rapidly. For example, the state may encourage the saving, increase the rates of interest, decrease the taxes to get on the saving, provide the precautions on investment.The buyers and sellers cannot determine the price on one's own on free competition market. Otherwise monopoly, trust and cartels may occur, stability may out of order between commodity and services.Market economy may deviate from the rules on two main categories.Manufacturer, buyer and seller may make deviate from the rules. Especially trade unionization is effective on this deviation.The state may interfere in economy by taxes, if social and individual advantages different, it may deviate from competition market.The state is exist in every kind of economy and serves to people with harmony and politics and social philosophies of our age. Also it provides security, education and health services but it doesn't determine the prices. It is one of the biggest manufacturers at the same time.II – HISTORICAL WIEW TO BULGARIAN ECONOMY IN THE TRANSITION PERIOD OF FREE MARKET ECONOMY1. BASIC SOCIAL AND ECONOMICAL INDICATORS1.1. GENERALThe form of government is republic, capital is Sofia, Population is 8.297.000(1997), increasing of population is %0. 7, distinctive characteristics in common with Turkishs, Pomaks, Russians, Gipsies, Tatars, Jewishes are in 16 percent.Estimated agricultural area is 1/3 and woodland is 1/3 of all the land. Charcoal, petroleum, natural gas, ferrum and sources except metal are too much. Bulgaria can't use the money too much on surroundings cause of economical lacks.Too many people are migrated to Turkey reason of economical lacks after communism regime. Population is decreased year by year, but unemployment.2. BULGARIA BEFORE 1989Ottoman empire had governorship on the Bulgaria more 500 years till 1908. Then, Bulgarian Kingdom is founded in 1908. Stamboliyski is in powered from Farmer Party in 1920. A new fascism supporter government is founded but communists and farmers were outside of government.Bulgaria is allied with Germany in 1941. Although a new government was found in 1944, the republican regime with referendum is founded in 1946. The new constution is validated in 1947. Cercenkov is in powered in 1950, relations with U.S.A. were out of order and membership of United Nations was validity in 1955.The new constitution is validated in 1971. T.Jivkow is in powered continually, became arrested cause of irregularity in 1990 and then, again a new constitution is validated. Communist Party is made to take out of only one party. In that year, state's name is changed to Republic of Bulgaria and removed the communist symbols from flag. Privatizational laws are validated with Jelev in 1992. The Government of Videnov is contraried the privatization in 1994.Peter Stoyanov is Nato's supporter and he was president in 1996. United Democratic Forces is in powered with 52 percent of vote after selections in 1997.2.1. COMECON AND COLLAPSING OF SYSTEMComecon is a union that emerged by East European Countries. Bulgarian economy has begun to transition period with some negative ness like other East European countries causes of political incompetence and dissociating end of 1980s.Bulgaria which had more than 60 percent of export to associate but it had couldn't find the new markets cause of inadequate ship of quality standards and had an old technology. Foreign currency reserves are high level. It has too many debts, political incompetent ship in the land. Financial system is not conformity to market economy and also could not claim 2 million dollars of money owing from Iraq because of golf war. So, Bulgaria couldn't save from crisis because of above reasons.2.2 GENERAL ECONOMICAL DEVELOPMENT AND SECTORSBulgarian manufacturing industry basically is founded on textile, wooden engrave, leather products and food prep rationing sectors.Bulgaria had realisation the attacks on the heavy industry that supported by S.S.C.B. after 2nd world war.Production of electro-mechanic and electronic goods in manufacturing sector is reached to an important share since 1970s.The biggest natural wealth of Bulgaria is productive earths. There are not important minerals in Bulgaria.In the following period of 2nd world war, metallurgy and chemical production had an importance. Industry sector had old technology. Its competition is losted the power with disunited of the Comecon.Productivity rates on industry are grown with economical reforms that started in 1979. Economical growing is dynamically continued in spite of reducing the productivity on agriculture sector, building sector and investments in Bulgaria. Especially, price volatility on agriculture sector is a reason of suspicion about real value of growth in 1988 according to 1987.Productions on agriculture and industry of Bulgaria are reduced according to statistics. Main problem on agriculture sector is delivery prices of goods.A stagnation indicator on Bulgarian economy is weakness of building and construction sector. Manufacturing products such as cement and weawing is in necessity. Manufacturing level is inadequate on that area and also unqualificationed organisations have been affected.2.3 - FOREIGN TRADEThere are no definite results on foreign trade reason of inadequate of numerical data's.However, export is increased up to the rate of 4 percent in 1988 and import is reduced to the rate of 1.8 percent. Bulgaria finance deficit is 600 million dollars result of trade with west countries in 1998. Tourism revenues are positive. Trade connections with Turkey are weak according to another East European countries.2.4 – PERESTROICA POLITICSThe new age on economy with state council's decision is started in January 9,1989. Activities to get the indepences of firms are velocitied. At the same time, this decision is more benefit to foreign investors too.3. 1989 – 1997 TRANSITION PERIOD3.1 – ECONOMICAL REFORM ACTIVITIESAlteration is started in east block countries after 1989 and together with this alteration. Comecon is losted the activity. So, idle capacities are commenced and Bulgaria is losted the production markets.The reforms are making started by new government in February 1991. External trade regime is liberalisation in one direction; this is one of the import nest factors of the reforms. With a decision is accepted in 1989, basic of economical reforms are occurred. Firms had equal rights to execution of economical activities. The laws related to foreign investment are validated in 1992.Commercial banks have gone to consolidation. Prices had freed except 11 basic consumption. Economical activities, government status on economy, foreign trade and foreign exchange regime, price regulations, privatization, tax systems are reorganized about foreign investors.3.2. SECTORAL CONSTITUTIONIndustrial sector had the over 50 percent of share on economy until 1990s. 11 private sector's share with service and trade sector approached to 60 percent between 1992 and 1997.SECTORSProductivity with old technologies on industrial sector is at low level. Engineering sector is developed. Products of textile sector are manufactured at high quality.CHEMICALSChemical products that have an important mark on export of Bulgaria. They were 1,096 milliard dollars with 22,3 percent in 1997 and 983 million dollars with 19.4 percent of total export in 1998.AGRICULTURE, FOOD AND TOBACCORate of plan tablelands are 34 percent in Bulgaria. Totally 304 firms are active on food, drink and tobacco sector.METALLURGY AND MINERSHIPIron product is 6.2 percent and other than iron is 6.8 percent on all of industry in 1998. In 1997, metallurgy sector is grown up to 117.2 percent with 529 million dollars in total amount of export in Bulgaria.MACHINEShare of machine sector is 13.8 percent in all of industry. Principal are; Machine parts, tractor, bus, ship, building and auto spare parts.CONSTRUCTIONPrivate firms in the sector have share with 13 percent in 1991. That share is grown to 62 percent in 1995 but then; it is reduced reason of financial inadequate ships.TOURISMTourism revenues are approximately 280 million dollars in 1995.4.5 million of transits and totally 8 million tourists are visited the Bulgaria in 1996.3.3. TRADE AFTER ECONOMICAL REFORMSExport of Bulgaria is totally 4.9 milliard dollars in 1997. The import nest export products are fuel oil, other fuels, cooper and its products and nuclear reactors. Import is 4.5 milliard dollars in 1997 and included the product such as mineral fuels, nuclear reactor heaters and spare parts, electric machines, mineral substances, cotton, synthetic fibres, cereals, auto and tractors.3.4. EXTERNAL DEBTSRate of the external debts to export revenues were 249.9 Percent in 1993 but then, back to 188.2 percent in 1994.Official external debts were 10.363 dollars in the end of 1997.3.5. FOREIGN INVESTORS EXTERNAL CAPITALMost investments with 636.2 million dollars by foreigners are made in 1997. This amount is 526 million dollars in 1998. Principal foreign investors are European countries and U.S.A. A new foreigner investment law is prepared in Oct 1997. Main sectors to investment are industry, trade, finance and tourism.3.6. COMMERCIAL BANKINGState banks are privatization by associate. Regulations relate to control of banking are valitidied by government. In the middle of 1997, a new law on banking are validated after economical crisis in 1996, Central Bank Law are rebuilt. High levels of capital and capital qualifications are obligationed.3.7. PRIVATIZATIONPrivatization is started with foundation transformation and privatization belongs to state and municipalities in April 1992. Privatization Agency is built-up. Privatization is realization with totally 836 million dollars between Jan 1,1993 and Dec 30,1998. Its part of 421.4 million dollars is in 1997 and part of 116 million dollars is realization in 1998.Foundations like ports, telecommunication and, etc.are out of privatization by laws. 95 percent of state firms transformed to form of private limited or nationalization. Share of these firms are belong to state.III. BULGARIA IN EUROPAN UNION AND CONNECTIONS WITH TURKEY1. BULGARIAN ECONOMY AND CONNECTIONS WITH TURKEYTest and certification operations, metal products except iron, chemical products, cereals, operational petroleum. Products are important substances from Bulgaria to Turkey.Although weaving products, food, chemical products, leather and stout leather products, glass, ceramics, brick products are ones of important from Turkey to Bulgaria.1.1. CONTENTS OF FREE TRADE AGREEMENT BETWEEN TURKEY AND BULGARIAAll taxes and restrictictions on industrial products by signed on European Agreement between European Union and Bulgaria in Mar 8,1993 and validated in Dec 31,1993 will be removed till 2002.Turkey and Bulgaria made easy to particularization into agricultural products market by reduced the taxes for between their selves.End of signed acts, 131 products of 446 that stated to Turkey and 1141 goods of existing on European Union Agreement are liberalization by remove from list of sensitive products.Foreign companies had a partnership rights with corporations and individuals and also foreign individuals had a right on economical activities by law of keeping foreign investors, which is validated in 1992. Same economical rights are recognized between foreigners and Bulgarians and also getting unlimited share from exist companies and companies that will be found.2. CONNECTIONS WITH EUROPEAN UNION AND FINANCIAL PORTREIT OF BULGARIA2.1. CONNECTION WITH EUROPEAN UNION OF BULGARIAIn the autumn 1989, Berlin wall is demolished and this motion make united the European that had divided to east and west after 2nd world war. Comecon's mean is continuing the economical dependent ship to Soviet Union. But, most east and west European countries reject it. After these European Union augmented economical and political supports to that countries reason of carry out and conclude the reform, which is started in middle and east European countries.Firstly, a group includes the Turkey is formed by 24 of OECD countries. G24s are transferred to entrust with coordination of support to the European Union Commission.That commission is functionizationed the Phare program that helps on financial and technical areas to Poland and Hungary. Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Romania in Sept.1990, Albanian, Estonia, Leetonia and Livonia in Jan.1992 and Slovenia in Aug.1992 are included by Phare program.Military regulations on security of West European losted the importance but they are already securely areas.Main political aims that related to Middle and East European countries of European Unions are explained below;a- Encouragement of liberal democratic system with respectful of law's superiority.b- to be sense on surroundingsc- to prevent the ethnical collidesd- to prevent the migration to foreign countries at the west.e- Phare program and encouragement of free market economy from planned economy.2.2. WHAT IS THE PHARE PROGRAM?Phare program's aim is build the encourage mental conditions to the market economy and to take pains about investments on economies of Middle and East Europe countries. This program includes unfinancable fields by traditional external supports. That supports on the program is formed by credits and encouragements and used for pilot projects related to reorganization of associations.Bulgaria is taken a support of 10.6 millions ECU by include of Phare program.European Union don't use only Phare program as a tool on politics related to Middle and East Europe countries, except itIncludes the programs within own constitution such as ERASMUS and COMETT.2.3. FIRST PERIOD (before 1989)In this period; trading is developed between Middle and East European countries that named as COMECON COUNTRIES but couldn't show the same developments against to West Europe in European Union.Soviet Union takes the priority on exporting with countries. Bulgaria is the develop pest country on trade with Soviet Union.2.4 TRANSITION PERIOD (1989-1992)The great changements occurred on trade in Soviet Union and Middle and East Europe countries from starting the reforms in 1989 to 1992.From 1989,trade and partnership agreements signed with Hungary and Poland then, with Czechoslovakia in 1990,also Bulgaria and Romania in 1991. At the same time, rejection is started on amount of restrictions. Exporting is increased between Middle and East European countries, Soviet Union and European Union other than below too;Devaluation in the countries other than Hungary,- Workings to join into the West European markets reason of re-emerging the losted ones in East European- Import is on peak-level from those countries to Germany after unitized the East and West Europe.2.5. EUROPEAN AGREEMENTSEuropean agreements are acted end of 1991.Bulgaria-Europe agreement's date of signature: Mar8, 1993Date of being inforce: Dec 31,1995Temporarily agreement: Dec 31,1992European agreement has been in force in Bulgaria, end of 1995. European agreements are partnership agreements that signed by based on 238th paragraph of Roma agreement and Maastricht agreement. According to that state, increasing of export is an prestipulation to growth the economy with stability.3. SUCCEED OF STABILITY PROGRAM IN BULGARIABulgaria signed on an agreement with IMF to pass over the economical hardships and started the reforms in 1991.Economy is grown at the rates of 2.1 percent in 1995.In 1997,economy has the new crisis related to Yugoslavia crisis and so, Bulgaria signed on a new agreement with IMF.Leva is fixed with 20 DM and 1000 Bulgarian Leva to 1 DM and constructral reforms is started to gain the speed.Economy in Bulgaria grown to positive from 1994 but to the 10.9 percent in 1996.- Inflation rates (%) in Republic of Bulgaria; 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 199882,2 72,8 96,2 62 123,1 1082,3 22,3After the stand-by agreement with IMF, inflation approached to 22.3 percent in 1998.Annual average of inflation is expected as 7.3 percent in 1999 and 9.0 percent in 2000.Bulgaria is the poorest country according to other east European countries candidate to membership of EU. Bulgarian Leva is determined by rejected the 3 zeros from Detsch Mark. So, new Leva is make related on euro at the rates of 1.95583:euro 1 (Lvl:DMI ).CONCLUSION:Bulgaria is declared the moratorium reason of hardness's to find an external debt, to refund the capital and interests of external debt.While external debt is 10.6-milliard dollars end of 1990,it has been 12.2 milliard dollars, end of 1993. So, started to paces towards to market economy in Feb 1991. Annual inflation is reduced from 338.5 percent in 1991 to 79.4 percent in 1992.The debts of managements of state are ruined the budget and also a reason to broken balance on economy too.The crisis on foreign currency is occurred in Mar 1994. Reforms have been out of control at the result of that crisis.Leva is devaluated as 100 percent and inflation is reduced to 90 percent on annual average. At this parallel, financial and revenue politics, money and its value are controlled. The debts to foreign countries are decreased to 9.8 milliard dollars with precautions in 1994 and end of 1996.Financial balance are obtained again in the first months of 1995, reduced the inflation and also rate of interests to 72 percent.Rate of exchange (Leva/$) was 503 percent between Jan 1 and Feb 12,1997. Especially, that increasing was 20-percent/each day in Feb 1997.Rate of interest was 300 percent in Sep.1996. 14 Banks are bankrupted in that period. Bulgaria had been 1st of the world from inflation increasing speed of view.Inflation, devaluation, unemployment and also wages are on the lowest level in transition period in Bulgaria. Incoming per person is decreased 50 percent between 1989 and 1995.Annual criminal events are increased 3 times more after 1990. Money committee had formed by advice of IMF in Jul 1997. 1Deutsche Mark is indexed on 1 Leva.Qualified personnel with educationed on technical areas is a great potential force of Bulgarian economy.Bulgaria will be completed the transition period when it became to membership of European Union.