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ABSTRACTThis paper reports upon a study to determine whether buffer strips could improve the quality of soil‐water draining from conifer‐afforested slopes. Three sites in the Monachyle Glen catchment in the Trossachs (West Central Scotland) were sampled and several chemical indices were determined. Buffer strips engendered some variable and qualified improvements in soil‐water concentrations of some ions, although the improvement was accompanied by the anticipated loss of bases. Improvements in soil‐water quality were related to soil characteristics ‐ soils containing organic matter being more effective than mineral soils.

Human-induced afforestation has been one of the main policies for environmental management of farmland abandonment in Mediterranean areas. Over the last decades, several studies have reviewed the impact of afforestation activities on geomorphological and hydrological responses and soil properties, although few studies have evaluated the effects on water table dynamics. In parallel to human-induced afforestation activities, natural revegetation occurred in abandoned fields and in fields where the intensity of human activity declined, driving the expansion of shrubs. This research addresses the spatial and temporal variability of water table dynamics in a small afforested sub-catchment located in the Central Spanish Pyrenees. Differences between afforestation (Pinus nigra and Pinus sylvestris) and natural plant colonization (shrubs, mainly Genista scorpius, Buxus sempervirens, and Juniperus communis) and early abandoned meadows (G. scorpius), are analysed in terms of runoff generation and seasonal water table depth dynamics. Precipitation, runoff and water table datasets recorded for the 2014–2019 period are used. Results show a high temporal and spatial variability with large fluctuations in discharge and water table. Groundwater dynamics varied markedly over the year, identifying a wet and dry period with different responses suggesting different runoff generation processes (Hortonian flow during dry and wet periods, and saturation excess runoff during wet conditions). Furthermore, important differences are noted among the various land cover types: (i) in the natural revegetation area (shrubland and meadows) a marked seasonal cycle was observed with short saturation periods during winter and spring; and (ii) in the afforestation areas, the water table dynamics showed a seasonal cycle with a high variability, with fast responses and rapid oscillations. Likewise, the relationship between the depth of water table and hydrological variables was not straightforward, suggesting complex hydrological behaviour. ; This work was funded by the H2020-MSCA-IF-2018 programme (Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions) of the European Union under REA grant agreement, number 834329-SEDILAND, and by the MANMOUNT project (PID2019-105983RB-I00/AEI/10.13039/501100011033, funded by MICINN-FEDER). ; Peer reviewed

The restoration of drained afforested peatlands, through drain blocking and tree removal, is increasing in response to peatland restoration targets and policy incentives. In the short term, these intensive restoration operations may affect receiving watercourses and the biota that depend upon them. This study assessed the immediate effect of 'forest-to-bog' restoration by measuring stream and river water quality for a 15 month period pre- and post-restoration, in the Flow Country peatlands of northern Scotland. We found that the chemistry of streams draining restoration areas differed from that of control streams following restoration, with phosphate concentrations significantly higher (1.7–6.2 fold, mean 4.4) in restoration streams compared to the pre-restoration period. This led to a decrease in the pass rate (from 100 to 75%) for the target "good" quality threshold (based on EU Water Framework Directive guidelines) in rivers in this immediate post-restoration period, when compared to unaffected river baseline sites (which fell from 100 to 90% post-restoration). While overall increases in turbidity, dissolved organic carbon, iron, potassium and manganese were not significant post-restoration, they exhibited an exaggerated seasonal cycle, peaking in summer months in restoration streams. We attribute these relatively limited, minor short-term impacts to the fact that relatively small percentages of the catchment area (3–23%), in our study catchments were felled, and that drain blocking and silt traps, put in place as part of restoration management, were likely effective in mitigating negative effects. Looking ahead, we suggest that future research should investigate longer term water quality effects and compare different ways of potentially controlling nutrient release.

ABSTRACTThe intensive afforestation of the uplands in Strathclyde Region, encouraged by Government policy, has given rise to growing concern about the impact of this significant change in land use on the quality and quantity of water supplies.The smaller high‐quality upland sources, which historically have minimal treatment, are those most at risk from changes as a result of forestry activity. Problems caused by a reduction in yield at some sources in the Region are discussed. A number of afforested water‐supply catchments have been monitored since 1984 with the aim of identifying trends in water quality, and the results indicate increases in colour, turbidity, acidity and aluminium in supplies after activities such as access road construction, ploughing and draining. Evidence is presented of the continued leaching of phosphate more than six years after the application of fertilizer.To enable improved advance consultation and planning to protect public water supplies, there is a requirement to be able to indicate the likely sensitivity of individual supplies to the various effects of afforestation.The Region is committed to a substantial ten‐year capital expenditure programme to upgrade water‐treatment works to comply with the recent European Community (EC) water‐supply standards imposed in 1985. Any significant long‐term changes in water quality associated with forestry activity will make this programme more costly to achieve.

This dissertation describes the application of the eco-hydrological model SWAT to a watershed in the Three Gorges Region, which is located in Hubei Province and Chongqing Municipality in Central China. The region is heavily influenced by the construction of the Three Gorges Dam on Yangtze River, which was completed in 2009. The dam was constructed for reasons of flood protection, hydropower production and navigation benefits. It exerts substantial influence on water resources in the affected sub-watersheds of Yangtze River. In the Three Gorges Region, the construction of the Three Gorges Dam induced a large-scale land use change. This can mostly be attributed to the inundation of agricultural areas, villages and towns, which necessitated the resettlement of more than 1 million people and the relocation of agriculturally used areas from the valley bottoms to steep, formerly forested slopes. The clearance of forest on steep slopes and their use for agricultural production is expected to strongly increase the risk of erosion and diffuse sediment inputs to surface waters. Soil erosion results in the removal of nutrient-rich topsoil, which leads to an irreversible degradation of soils and to undesired off-site effects in surface waters. The sediment reduces the life span of the Three Gorges Reservoir due to siltation and carries large amounts of nutrients to the water bodies. At the same time, flow velocities are reduced and the residence time of water is prolonged in the reservoir. In combination, the increasing sediment and nutrient inputs and the altered flow regime are expected to exacerbate the risk of eutrophication and thereby hamper the usability of water resources. Especially in the backwater areas of Yangtze River tributaries, an increasing occurrence of algae blooms has been observed in recent years. The current situation in the Three Gorges Region indicates a strong need for sustainable water resources management. This dissertation aimed at identifying a suitable tool for assessing the impact of land use change in the Three Gorges Region on water quantity and quality to support the development of integrated watershed management plans. Therefore, the eco-hydrological model SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) was applied to the Xiangxi Catchment in Hubei Province. The Xiangxi Catchment comprises an area of 3200 km2 as is considered to be representative of the eastern part of the Three Gorges Region. Land use in the watershed is dominated by forest. Agriculturally used areas are restricted to relatively small areas, which are characterized by severe soil erosion. SWAT was used in this dissertation to simulate water balance, streamflow and sediment yield under past, current and possible future land use conditions. Also, the most important sources of model error were identified in this study. Results indicate that the model performs very well with regard to streamflow and water balance, whereas the prediction of sediment yield is more problematic. SWAT output was analyzed at different spatial levels ranging from the entire watershed to individual Hydrologic Response Units. Generally, there is considerable uncertainty associated with the SWAT predictions in the Xiangxi Catchment, because of a low amount of data available for model parameterization, calibration and validation. Nevertheless results of the basic model calibration were considered a sufficient basis for the simulation of land use scenarios. The forested area in the Xiangxi Catchment has increased in the recent past which led to a decrease of fast flow components and sediment yield. Scenario simulations demonstrate that a further increase in forest would result in a continuation of the trends observed in the past, whereas an increase of agriculturally used areas would induce a strong increase in sediment yields. The scenario simulations indicate a high potential for conflicts between environmental protection and agricultural production, which is aggravated by conservation efforts of the Chinese government, e.g. the Sloping Land Conversion Program (SLCP). Through compensation and subsidy payments, SLCP encouraged farmers to convert sloping cropland to forest or grassland. While this is an effective means of reducing soil erosion on the afforested areas, it increases the pressure on the remaining cropland. The results of this dissertation suggest that in the future the application of selected Best Management Practices may be more effective for realizing sustainable watershed management plans than continuing to reallocate land use types within the Xiangxi Catchment. SWAT has already been used successfully for assessing the effects of Best Management Practices on water resources in a number of studies. However, the data currently available for the Xiangxi Catchment does not allow for a sufficiently detailed parameterization and calibration of land use and management. Future studies in the Xiangxi Catchment should focus on improving the data base by obtaining additional relevant input data. This can help to reduce the uncertainty in model results and facilitate the simulation of Best Management Practices. By testing the applicability of SWAT to the Xiangxi Catchment and identifying the main sources of uncertainty, this dissertation laid the groundwork for further research in the Three Gorges Region, which can help to preserve natural resources in this unique and sensitive ecosystem.

AbstractThe predictions of a semi‐empirical evaporation model, and their implications to water resources for the uplands of Scotland, are presented for a range of land‐use and climatic scenarios. Three principal vegetation types (coniferous plantation forest, heather and upland grasses) are assessed. The model only requires daily rainfall, Penman potential evaporation, and snow line information as input data. A description of the modelling approach is given, and its performance is assessed by comparing its predictions to the water balances of nine partially afforested Scottish upland catchments.

Wald weist gegenüber anderen Landnutzungen meist die günstigeren Wasserrückhalteigenschaften auf. Diese sind jedoch begrenzt. Ob zusätzlicher Wald in einem Einzugsgebiet zur Reduktion eines Hochwassers führt, hängt ab von der Vorwitterung, den Eigenschaften des Bodens, auf dem die Aufforstung etabliert wurde, Dauer und Intensität des hochwasserauslösenden Niederschlagsereignisses und Lage und Größe der Aufforstungsfläche im betrachteten Einzugsgebiet. Weiterhin spielt das Waldmanagement, welches in dieser Arbeit nur am Rande diskutiert wurde, eine bedeutende Rolle. Bei der Umwandlung einer anderen Landnutzung in Wald sind noch nicht alle Prozesse, die den Wasserrückhalt betreffen, ausreichend untersucht und beschrieben. Dies gilt besonders für die Änderungen in der hydraulischen Architektur der Böden. Es wurde dargestellt, dass aufwachsende Wälder schon nach wenigen Jahren die Porenverteilung besonders in den oberen Bodenhorizonten verändern. Obwohl experimentelle Felduntersuchungen besonders durch die Suche nach geeigneten Teststandorten schwierig sind, wären weitere Messergebnisse von anderen Böden mit anderen Baumarten hier wünschenswert. Eine modellhafte Beschreibung einer Landnutzungsänderung hin zu Wald in Bezug auf den Hochwasserrückhalt ist demnach mit hohen Unsicherheiten behaftet. Modelle bleiben dennoch die einzige Möglichkeit, Auswirkungen von Landnutzungsänderungen mit vertretbarem Aufwand quantifizierend abzuschätzen. Allgemein gilt bei der Anwendung hydrologischer Modelle zur Prognose von Auswirkungen veränderter Landnutzungen, dass bislang wenig quantitativ verwertbares Wissen über Änderungen im Boden besteht. Weder der Zielzustand noch der Verlauf der Transformation können hier sicher prognostiziert werden. Vernachlässigt man aber solche Prozesse, dürfen bei einer Ergebnisdiskussion auch nur die berücksichtigten Prozesse angeführt werden. Die Weiterentwicklung der Modelle mit gezielter paralleler Datenerhebung ist hier unabdingbar. Die zunehmenden Fragestellungen hinsichtlich veränderter Landnutzungssysteme erfordern auch innovative Formen der Parametrisierung und Kalibrierung der Modelle. Der zunehmende Grad an Prozessabbildungen in den Modellen darf die Parametrisierbarkeit nicht unmöglich machen. Eine adäquate Prozessabbildung ist jedoch der Schlüssel für die szenarienfähige Modellierung. Die Kommunikation der Ergebnisse muss deshalb eine hohe Transparenz mit der Benennung aller bekannten Unsicherheiten aufweisen, da Entscheidungen in der Landnutzung Konsequenzen über sehr lange Zeiträume hinweg nach sich ziehen. Die qualifizierte Prognose von Landnutzungsänderungen ist eine disziplinübergreifende Aufgabe. Hier wirken soziologische, ökonomische und ökologische Prozesse zusammen, deren Resultat die zukünftige Landnutzung ist. Eine weitere wichtige Schlussfolgerung der vorliegenden Arbeit ist daher, dass für die Umsetzung von Maßnahmen, zur Erhöhung des Wasserrückhaltes, wie hier der Aufforstung, ein breiter wissenschaftlicher und gesellschaftlicher Konsens herrschen muss. Es braucht integrierte Ansätze zur disziplinübergreifenden Beschreibung von Auswirkungen veränderter Landnutzung. Trotz aller Unsicherheiten bei der wissenschaftlichen Beweisführung wird erwartet, dass bis zur Umsetzung der Hochwasserrisiko-Managementpläne "nachhaltige Flächennutzungen" zur "Verbesserung des Wasserrückhaltes" definiert sind. Besonders für die politischen Entscheidungsträger ist zur Entwicklung geeigneter Steuerelemente festzuhalten, das Hochwasserschutzmaßnahmen in der Fläche ihre hauptsächliche Wirkung nicht am Punkt der Implementierung entfalten, sondern erst weiter flussabwärts. Daher sind die bisherigen Förderinstrumente der EU-Agrarflächenförderung für den Hochwasserschutz in der Fläche nahezu nicht anwendbar. Es gilt hier sektorales Denken zu überwinden. Unterschiedliche Ansprüche an Landnutzungssysteme sind durch Lösungsansätze auszubalancieren, die die unterschiedlichen Landschaftsfunktionen berücksichtigen, von denen Wasserrückhalt ein Teil sein kann. Andere Schutzziele wie Naturschutz, Bodenschutz, Ziele der Wasserrahmenrichtlinie, Fragen eines ästhetischen Landschaftsbildes und nicht zuletzt Fragen der wirtschaftlichen Ansprüche an die einzelnen Flächen spielen hier eine wichtige Rolle. Bei der Entwicklung begründeter Zukunftsszenarien ist diese transdisziplinäre Herangehensweise unbedingt zu empfehlen. Hochwasserschutz kann aber nicht die Aufgabe haben, Hochwasserereignisse vollkommen auszuschließen. Schon heute ist bekannt, dass das Ausbleiben kleiner und mittlerer Hochwässer ökologische Konsequenzen hat. Vielmehr könnte in Gebieten, wie dem hier untersuchten, eine Erhöhung des Waldanteils dazu beitragen, die anthropogenen Störungen zu reduzieren und den Wasserrückhalt dahingehend zu erhöhen, dass hochwasserverschärfende Eingriffe in den Einzugsgebieten zurückgebaut werden.:Inhalt Erklärung des Promovenden 3 Danksagung 4 1 Einführung 6 1.1 Hintergrund und Motivation 6 1.2 Zielsetzung 8 1.3 Struktur 9 2 Zusammenfassende Darstellung der Publikationsinhalte 11 2.1 Vorstellung des Modells AKWA-M® 11 2.2 Einfluss des Waldes auf bodenhydraulische Eigenschaften 12 2.3 Bildung begründeter Waldmehrungsszenarien 13 2.4 Exkurs: Politischer Vollzug in sächsischen Hochwasserentstehungsgebieten 14 2.5 Synthese 15 3 Schlussfolgerungen 16 4 Literatur 18 Anhänge: Anhang 1: WAHREN A., SCHWÄRZEL K., FEGER K.H., MÜNCH A., DITTRICH I. (2007): Identification and model based assessment of the potential water retention caused by land-use changes, Advances in Geosciences 11: 49–56. Anhang 2: WAHREN A., SCHWÄRZEL K., FEGER K.H., MÜNCH A. (2009): Land-use effects on flood generation – considering soil hydraulic measurements in modelling, Advances in Geosciences 21: 99–107. Anhang 3: WAHREN A., FEGER K.H. (2010): Model-Based Assessment of Forest Land Management on Water Dynamics at Various Hydrological Scales – A Case Study, in: Bredemeier, M.; Cohen, S.; Godbold, D.L.; Lode, E.; Pichler, V.; Schleppi, P. (Eds.): Forest Management and the Water Cycle - An Ecosystem-Based Approach, Ecological Studies 212, Springer: 453-469 Anhang 4: WAHREN A., FRANK S., WALTHER P., SCHMIDT W., FEGER K.H. (2011): Erstellung eines Leitfadens für Ausgleichsmaßnahmen auf landwirtschaftlich genutzten Flächen in den Hochwasserentstehungsgebieten Sachsens, Hydrologie und Wasserbewirtschaftung 55: 155-165. Anhang 5: WAHREN A., SCHWÄRZEL K., FEGER K.H. (2012): Potentials and limitations of natural flood retention by forested land in headwater catchments: evidence from experimental and model studies, J. Flood Risk Management 5, 321–335. ; Forests show, compared to other land uses, in many cases good water retention potential. This is however limited. Whether additional forest area in a catchment leads to a reduction of flooding depends on the pre-event atmospheric conditions, the soil characteristics at the afforested site, the duration and intensity of the rain storm event, and location and size of the afforested area. Further, the forest management, which is only briefly discussed in this thesis, plays an important role. Many water retention related processes occurring during the transformation of a landuse into forest are not yet sufficiently investigated an described. This applies especially to the changes in the hydraulic architecture of the soil. It was shown that after a few years growing forests have already changed the pore distribution, especially in the upper soil horizons. However, further research under different soil and tree type would be desirable. Therefore, a model-based description of land use change towards forest with regard to flood retention comprises uncertainties which should be taken into consideration. Nevertheless, models are the only possibility to assess land use change effects with justifiable expenditure. In general, the application of hydrological models comprised sparse useful information about changes in the soil due to a changed land use. Neither the target state nor the progression of the transformation can be predicted with certainty. Further development of models with parallel observations and data gathering is essential. With increasing number of questions regarding modified land use systems, a need arises for innovative forms of parameterisation and model calibration. The increasing degree of process mapping in models may make parameterability difficult, however, adequate process mapping is the key to scenario capable modelling. The communication of results must therefore include a high degree of transparency in the definition of all known uncertainties, because decisions have long lasting consequences. A qualified prediction of land use changes is a cross-disciplinary task. Ecological, economical, and sociological processes together form the future land use distribution. An important conclusion from this thesis is that the implementation of measures targeting increased water retention requires must result in a consensus with society and economics. Integrated approaches and transdisciplinary assessment of impacts of land use modifications are needed. Although, the uncertainties in model-based land use change assessment are high, there is a need for the definition of "sustainable land use" and "increase of water retention" for the flood risk management plans. Adapted land use as a component of integrated flood risk management has a major constraint: the benefits of water retention in the landscape are mostly not directly noticeable at the place where a measure is implemented. This is highly important for stakeholders and decision makers. However, given that most of the land available for afforestation is a private property, it may be necessary to provide subsidies to encourage landowners to increase the percentage of forested land. Competitive land use system requirements need to be balanced with approaches dealing with different landscape functions. Water retention is part of this functioning. Other protection aims like nature protection, soil protection, aims of the Water Framework Directive, aesthetic land use pattern but also the agrar-economic production play an important role. Well-founded future land use scenarios should use this transdisciplinary view. Finally, it is also important to keep in mind that floods belong to a healthy river runoff regime. Floods are an important part of the natural hydrological cycle, and therefore the goal of watershed management should not be to eliminate them entirely. Additional forest can help to re-establish the natural water retention potential in anthropogenically disturbed river basins and to decrease the human-made contribution to flood generation.:Inhalt Erklärung des Promovenden 3 Danksagung 4 1 Einführung 6 1.1 Hintergrund und Motivation 6 1.2 Zielsetzung 8 1.3 Struktur 9 2 Zusammenfassende Darstellung der Publikationsinhalte 11 2.1 Vorstellung des Modells AKWA-M® 11 2.2 Einfluss des Waldes auf bodenhydraulische Eigenschaften 12 2.3 Bildung begründeter Waldmehrungsszenarien 13 2.4 Exkurs: Politischer Vollzug in sächsischen Hochwasserentstehungsgebieten 14 2.5 Synthese 15 3 Schlussfolgerungen 16 4 Literatur 18 Anhänge: Anhang 1: WAHREN A., SCHWÄRZEL K., FEGER K.H., MÜNCH A., DITTRICH I. (2007): Identification and model based assessment of the potential water retention caused by land-use changes, Advances in Geosciences 11: 49–56. Anhang 2: WAHREN A., SCHWÄRZEL K., FEGER K.H., MÜNCH A. (2009): Land-use effects on flood generation – considering soil hydraulic measurements in modelling, Advances in Geosciences 21: 99–107. Anhang 3: WAHREN A., FEGER K.H. (2010): Model-Based Assessment of Forest Land Management on Water Dynamics at Various Hydrological Scales – A Case Study, in: Bredemeier, M.; Cohen, S.; Godbold, D.L.; Lode, E.; Pichler, V.; Schleppi, P. (Eds.): Forest Management and the Water Cycle - An Ecosystem-Based Approach, Ecological Studies 212, Springer: 453-469 Anhang 4: WAHREN A., FRANK S., WALTHER P., SCHMIDT W., FEGER K.H. (2011): Erstellung eines Leitfadens für Ausgleichsmaßnahmen auf landwirtschaftlich genutzten Flächen in den Hochwasserentstehungsgebieten Sachsens, Hydrologie und Wasserbewirtschaftung 55: 155-165. Anhang 5: WAHREN A., SCHWÄRZEL K., FEGER K.H. (2012): Potentials and limitations of natural flood retention by forested land in headwater catchments: evidence from experimental and model studies, J. Flood Risk Management 5, 321–335.