Suchergebnisse

While analysing constitutions of various countries in the legal literature, typically not only the form and the content but also the structure of the constitution is discussed. The structure of the constitution is an internal organisational order of the norms of the constitution. Although every state's constitution has a unique structure, certain regularities can be discerned. The analysis of the structure of various constitutions leads to the conclusion that normally each constitution consists of the following standard structural parts: the preamble, the main part, the final, transitional or additional provisions, and in some constitutions there can also be annexes. The article confirms that most constitutions begin with an introductory part, the preamble. Only the constitutions of several countries (e.g. Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, Italy, Greece) contain no preamble. The preamble reflects the historical context and the circumstances of the adoption of a constitution, names the goals of the constitutional regulation, fortifies the values to be attained, declares the key political principles or even the fundamental human rights and freedoms, etc. Often the preamble reveals the methods of adoption of a constitution. The preamble is an important structural part of the constitution that helps to understand the established constitutional regulation. The principles enshrined in it can be considered a significant argument for the constitutional justice institutions while solving the case of whether the law or any other legal act in question contradicts the constitution. The preamble is not only a political, ideological, and/or philosophical category; it undoubtedly also carries a legal burden, therefore it is considered to have legal validity. Preambles are characterized as having a so-called higher style; they are usually formulated not in compliance with the requirements of legal technique.

Straipsnyje analizuojama žmogaus teisių apsauga Europoje, garantuojama pagal Europos Sąjungos ir Europos Tarybos (konkrečiai – Žmogaus teisių ir pagrindinių laisvių apsaugos konvencijos) teisines sistemas. Nagrinėjama dviejų regioninių teismo institucijų (Europos Žmogaus Teisių Teismo ir Europos Sąjungos Teisingumo Teismo) praktika ir kai kurios žmogaus teisių apsaugos užtikrinimo Europoje problemos. Straipsnyje vertinamas galimas Europos Sąjungos prisijungimo prie Žmogaus teisių ir pagrindinių laisvių apsaugos konvencijos poveikis žmogaus teisių apsaugai Europoje. Analizuojamos Prisijungimo sutarties projekte siūlomos procesinės taisyklės ir galimi jų trūkumai. Galiausiai pateikiamos įžvalgos dėl šiuo metu esamo žmogaus teisių apsaugos lygio Europoje pakankamumo, kurios iš dalies galėtų būti pagrindas vertinti Europos Sąjungos prisijungimo prie Žmogaus teisių ir pagrindinių laisvių apsaugos konvencijos poreikį. The article analyses human rights protection in Europe guaranteed in the legal systems of the European Union and the Council of Europe (i.e. the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms). It examines case law of two regional judicial institutions (European Court of Human Rights and Court of Justice of the European Union) and certain problems of human rights protection in Europe. The article also assesses what impact the European Union accession to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms could have on the human rights protection in Europe; and analyses rules and procedures proposed in the draft Accession agreement, and their possible flaws. Finally, views on the current state of human rights protection in Europe are presented, which in a way gives a basis to question the need for the European Union to accede to the Convention.

Trade secrets are one of the most commonly used forms of protection of intellectual creation and innovative know-how by businesses, yet at the same time they are the least protected by the existing Union legal framework against their unlawful acquisition, use or disclosure by other parties. Until June 1, 2018, the member states committed themselves to transposing the Directive (EU) 2016/943145 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 June 2016 into national law, which is providing for minimum standards for the protection of undisclosed know-how and business information (trade secrets) against their unlawful acquisition, use and disclosure (further - Directive). This Directive has a considerable impact on the legal regulation of Member States in this area since the level of legal protection of undisclosed know-how and business information (trade secrets) is different in the Member States. It should be noted that the Directive must be applied in conjunction with the provisions of the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (further – TRIPS)146 Agreement, which provides the protection of trade secrets. The purpose of this research work is to assess the level of legal protection of undisclosed know-how and business information (trade secrets) both until the transposition of the directive into national law of the Member States and after this transposition.

The issue of human rights has always been a matter shared by politicians, lawyers, philosophers and sociologists. Since the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights scholars and human rights activists have discussed whether the Declaration has become a symbol of human rights universality. Two decades later Muslim states have started discussions if human rights are indeed universal. They argued that human rights is a product of western imperialism and therefore the Arab states are not bound by the human rights catalogue proposed by the West. In 2008, the Arab Charter on Human Rights drafted within the framework of the League of Arab States came into force. This fact was welcomed by the international community, non-governmental organizations, and High Commissioner for Human Rights. The Arab Charter on Human Rights was seen as a possibility for the Arab States to confirm the commitment to the universality of human rights. However, the adopted text was disappointing and once again raised the doubt that Arab States are not truly committed to universal human rights. This article analyses the quest for the universality of human rights. ; Pasitelkus žmogaus teisių universalumo ir kultūrinio reliatyvizmo šalininkų polemiką straipsnyje analizuojama besiformuojanti Arabų žmogaus teisių regioninė sistema. Kalbėti apie Arabų žmogaus teisių sistemą yra problematiška. Viena vertus, todėl, kad šiuo metu egzistuoja apie penkias dešimtis musulmoniškų valstybių su skirtingomis teisinėmis bei politinėmis sistemomis ir kol kas nėra jokios politinės arba religinės institucijos, kuri vienytų visą pasaulio musulmonų bendruomenę. Kita vertus, ir todėl, kad vargu ar Arabų lygos rėmuose įsteigtas Arabų žmogaus teisių komitetas galėtų būti laikomas tokia institucija. Nors įprasta manyti, kad Visuotinė žmogaus teisių deklaracija padėjo pagrindus žmogaus teisių universalumui, vis dėlto jų universalumas buvo kvestionuotas po dviejų dešimtmečių, kai dauguma musulmoniškų valstybių tapo nepriklausomomis. Laikydamos žmogaus teises kolonializmo liekana ir joms primestu svetimu katalogu, išpažįstančios islamą valstybės teigė, kad jos nėra saistomos žmogaus teisių universalumo idėjos. Kaip atsaką į Visuotinės žmogaus teisių deklaracijos nuostatas islamiškos valstybės parengė Kairo žmogaus teisių deklaraciją, kurioje žmogaus teisių katalogas buvo atspindėtas pagal šariato prizmę. Nuo pat 1990 m. islamiškos valstybės ėmėsi rengti privalomą žmogaus teisių dokumentą, kuriame būtų įtvirtintas pagrindinis žmogaus teisių katalogas. Antrasis bandymas parengti tokį tekstą buvo sėkmingas. 2008 m. įsigaliojusi Arabų žmogaus teisių chartija pateikė žmogaus teisių katalogą ir įkūrė Arabų žmogaus teisių komitetą. Atrodė, kad dalyvaujant arabų valstybėms ir tarptautiniams ekspertams bei nevyriausybinių organizacijų atstovams, taip pat tarptautinėms bendrijoms reikalaujant bus užtikrinti tarptautiniai žmogaus teisių standartai atitinkantys reikalavimus Žmogaus teisių katalogui parengti, tačiau rezultatas buvo kitoks nei tikėtasi. Jungtinių Tautų vyriausiajai žmogaus teisių komisarei pareiškus kritiką dėl kai kurių priimto dokumento nuostatų suabejota ar Arabų valstybės iš tiesų pripažįsta žmogaus teisių universalumą. Jungtinių Tautų pareigūnė atkreipė dėmesį į kelias susirūpinimą keliančias problemas: sionizmo prilyginimą rasizmui bei į moterų, vaikų ir asmenų, neturinčių pilietybės, teisių aiškinimą. Mokslininkai nustatę ir daugiau problemų, nei anksčiau minėtos, t. y. teisės į gyvybę užtikrinimo problemą, valstybių pozityvių įsipareigojimų vengimą draudžiant kankinimus, žiaurų, nežmonišką elgesį arba baudimą bei individualių peticijų mechanizmo nebuvimą. Visos šios aplinkybės, autorės nuomone, leidžia pagrįstai suabejoti, kad sukurta Arabų žmogaus teisių sistema. Straipsnio autorės nuomone, šio dokumento priėmimą greičiau galima laikyti tik dar vienos regioninės žmogaus teisių sistemos užuomazga.

After regaining its independence in 1990, Lithuania has demonstrated the will to establish the universal human rights standards in the country as soon as possible. However, taking into account the country's policy in the later years of independence, it's not clear whose interests – state of individual – are more important and how these concepts coexist in the framework of Lithuanian human rights policy. The aim of the research is to examine wherever state sovereignty and human rights are (in)compatible with each other in the policy-making context of Lithuanian human rights policy. Aiming to achieve the above mentioned aim the Lithuanian human rights policy-making context, factors affecting this policy, national legal basis on human rights, fourteen programmes of the Government through the prism of human rights are analyzed. In conducting the research the following research methods were used: documents and legal acts analysis, semi-structured interview, as well as comparative analysis. Empirical research data indicates that Lithuanian human rights policy could be described as fragmented, lacking integrity and balanced attention to all human rights; strongly expressed social economical dimension the other key feature of this policy. In the context of such policy the relation between the human rights and state sovereignty is rather mixed. On the one hand, the external sovereignty is compatible with human rights and freedoms; they complement each other. Meanwhile the supremacy of state's interests over the individual rights in the context of internal policy gives the basis to claim that human rights are not compatible with internal state sovereignty and state sovereignty which reflects the interests of state is a higher value in the internal policy. The empirical data also indicates that human rights and internal state sovereignty are compatible with each other when the interests of state include the duty to protect the human rights.

After regaining its independence in 1990, Lithuania has demonstrated the will to establish the universal human rights standards in the country as soon as possible. However, taking into account the country's policy in the later years of independence, it's not clear whose interests – state of individual – are more important and how these concepts coexist in the framework of Lithuanian human rights policy. The aim of the research is to examine wherever state sovereignty and human rights are (in)compatible with each other in the policy-making context of Lithuanian human rights policy. Aiming to achieve the above mentioned aim the Lithuanian human rights policy-making context, factors affecting this policy, national legal basis on human rights, fourteen programmes of the Government through the prism of human rights are analyzed. In conducting the research the following research methods were used: documents and legal acts analysis, semi-structured interview, as well as comparative analysis. Empirical research data indicates that Lithuanian human rights policy could be described as fragmented, lacking integrity and balanced attention to all human rights; strongly expressed social economical dimension the other key feature of this policy. In the context of such policy the relation between the human rights and state sovereignty is rather mixed. On the one hand, the external sovereignty is compatible with human rights and freedoms; they complement each other. Meanwhile the supremacy of state's interests over the individual rights in the context of internal policy gives the basis to claim that human rights are not compatible with internal state sovereignty and state sovereignty which reflects the interests of state is a higher value in the internal policy. The empirical data also indicates that human rights and internal state sovereignty are compatible with each other when the interests of state include the duty to protect the human rights.

After regaining its independence in 1990, Lithuania has demonstrated the will to establish the universal human rights standards in the country as soon as possible. However, taking into account the country's policy in the later years of independence, it's not clear whose interests – state of individual – are more important and how these concepts coexist in the framework of Lithuanian human rights policy. The aim of the research is to examine wherever state sovereignty and human rights are (in)compatible with each other in the policy-making context of Lithuanian human rights policy. Aiming to achieve the above mentioned aim the Lithuanian human rights policy-making context, factors affecting this policy, national legal basis on human rights, fourteen programmes of the Government through the prism of human rights are analyzed. In conducting the research the following research methods were used: documents and legal acts analysis, semi-structured interview, as well as comparative analysis. Empirical research data indicates that Lithuanian human rights policy could be described as fragmented, lacking integrity and balanced attention to all human rights; strongly expressed social economical dimension the other key feature of this policy. In the context of such policy the relation between the human rights and state sovereignty is rather mixed. On the one hand, the external sovereignty is compatible with human rights and freedoms; they complement each other. Meanwhile the supremacy of state's interests over the individual rights in the context of internal policy gives the basis to claim that human rights are not compatible with internal state sovereignty and state sovereignty which reflects the interests of state is a higher value in the internal policy. The empirical data also indicates that human rights and internal state sovereignty are compatible with each other when the interests of state include the duty to protect the human rights.

After regaining its independence in 1990, Lithuania has demonstrated the will to establish the universal human rights standards in the country as soon as possible. However, taking into account the country's policy in the later years of independence, it's not clear whose interests – state of individual – are more important and how these concepts coexist in the framework of Lithuanian human rights policy. The aim of the research is to examine wherever state sovereignty and human rights are (in)compatible with each other in the policy-making context of Lithuanian human rights policy. Aiming to achieve the above mentioned aim the Lithuanian human rights policy-making context, factors affecting this policy, national legal basis on human rights, fourteen programmes of the Government through the prism of human rights are analyzed. In conducting the research the following research methods were used: documents and legal acts analysis, semi-structured interview, as well as comparative analysis. Empirical research data indicates that Lithuanian human rights policy could be described as fragmented, lacking integrity and balanced attention to all human rights; strongly expressed social economical dimension the other key feature of this policy. In the context of such policy the relation between the human rights and state sovereignty is rather mixed. On the one hand, the external sovereignty is compatible with human rights and freedoms; they complement each other. Meanwhile the supremacy of state's interests over the individual rights in the context of internal policy gives the basis to claim that human rights are not compatible with internal state sovereignty and state sovereignty which reflects the interests of state is a higher value in the internal policy. The empirical data also indicates that human rights and internal state sovereignty are compatible with each other when the interests of state include the duty to protect the human rights.

The object of this paper is the human rights policy in the Visegrad countries. The problem of the research – the Human Rights Policy in the Visegrad countries – is a relatively new and hardly explored subject, although it is an integral part of the general post-communistic transformation. The research problem is characterized by the fact that in the sphere of human rights of the Visegrad countries, no tradition of intellectual and practical political tradition occur, and their newly formulated policies on human rights are not based on the ethos that could be considered standard or finished by the international community. The EU requirements and pressure were the main external factors boosting the development of the human rights policy in the Visegrad countries. The aim of the paper is to analyze the factors that led to the peculiarities of the national human rights policy in the Visegrad countries, and their integration to the international human rights policy. In order to reveal the above-mentioned aim, the following tasks have been formed: to reveal the characteristics of the human rights regime, as well as its legal and institutional structures; to reflect the effectiveness and effect of the protection of human rights in Europe; to assess the institutional transformations that have taken place in the national human rights policy of the Visegrad countries; to analyze the relationship between the Visegrad countries and a society in shaping the national policies on human rights; to examine the participation of the Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary in the international human rights policy. After the research, in which the paper theme, its breadth, complexity, diversity and topics have been considered, a descriptive-analytical, and data analysis, as well as the semi-structured interview techniques, have been used to formulate the following conclusions. The conclusions describe the characteristics of the European human rights regime in the legal and institutional structures, as well as the lack of the accountability of legal institutions and countries, which encodes the possibility for the countries to independently choose the mechanisms and national measures for the human rights policy implementation. The features of the effective European Human Rights activity – an adequate response to the significant social problems, flexible diplomacy, as well as legal and political initiatives – can be observed. The documents connected with the human rights issue ratified by the Visegrad countries often reveal a sort of distinction between the state and its citizens, as well as its citizens and people. The remnants of the communist relics and the weak current policies on human rights lead to the passivity of a civil society in the political discourse. The research of the participation of the Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary in international human rights missions/programs and organizations, has disclosed the tendency of the transformational period, i.e. the orientation towards the general context of the EU foreign policy.

The object of this paper is the human rights policy in the Visegrad countries. The problem of the research – the Human Rights Policy in the Visegrad countries – is a relatively new and hardly explored subject, although it is an integral part of the general post-communistic transformation. The research problem is characterized by the fact that in the sphere of human rights of the Visegrad countries, no tradition of intellectual and practical political tradition occur, and their newly formulated policies on human rights are not based on the ethos that could be considered standard or finished by the international community. The EU requirements and pressure were the main external factors boosting the development of the human rights policy in the Visegrad countries. The aim of the paper is to analyze the factors that led to the peculiarities of the national human rights policy in the Visegrad countries, and their integration to the international human rights policy. In order to reveal the above-mentioned aim, the following tasks have been formed: to reveal the characteristics of the human rights regime, as well as its legal and institutional structures; to reflect the effectiveness and effect of the protection of human rights in Europe; to assess the institutional transformations that have taken place in the national human rights policy of the Visegrad countries; to analyze the relationship between the Visegrad countries and a society in shaping the national policies on human rights; to examine the participation of the Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary in the international human rights policy. After the research, in which the paper theme, its breadth, complexity, diversity and topics have been considered, a descriptive-analytical, and data analysis, as well as the semi-structured interview techniques, have been used to formulate the following conclusions. The conclusions describe the characteristics of the European human rights regime in the legal and institutional structures, as well as the lack of the accountability of legal institutions and countries, which encodes the possibility for the countries to independently choose the mechanisms and national measures for the human rights policy implementation. The features of the effective European Human Rights activity – an adequate response to the significant social problems, flexible diplomacy, as well as legal and political initiatives – can be observed. The documents connected with the human rights issue ratified by the Visegrad countries often reveal a sort of distinction between the state and its citizens, as well as its citizens and people. The remnants of the communist relics and the weak current policies on human rights lead to the passivity of a civil society in the political discourse. The research of the participation of the Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary in international human rights missions/programs and organizations, has disclosed the tendency of the transformational period, i.e. the orientation towards the general context of the EU foreign policy.

The object of this paper is the human rights policy in the Visegrad countries. The problem of the research – the Human Rights Policy in the Visegrad countries – is a relatively new and hardly explored subject, although it is an integral part of the general post-communistic transformation. The research problem is characterized by the fact that in the sphere of human rights of the Visegrad countries, no tradition of intellectual and practical political tradition occur, and their newly formulated policies on human rights are not based on the ethos that could be considered standard or finished by the international community. The EU requirements and pressure were the main external factors boosting the development of the human rights policy in the Visegrad countries. The aim of the paper is to analyze the factors that led to the peculiarities of the national human rights policy in the Visegrad countries, and their integration to the international human rights policy. In order to reveal the above-mentioned aim, the following tasks have been formed: to reveal the characteristics of the human rights regime, as well as its legal and institutional structures; to reflect the effectiveness and effect of the protection of human rights in Europe; to assess the institutional transformations that have taken place in the national human rights policy of the Visegrad countries; to analyze the relationship between the Visegrad countries and a society in shaping the national policies on human rights; to examine the participation of the Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary in the international human rights policy. After the research, in which the paper theme, its breadth, complexity, diversity and topics have been considered, a descriptive-analytical, and data analysis, as well as the semi-structured interview techniques, have been used to formulate the following conclusions. The conclusions describe the characteristics of the European human rights regime in the legal and institutional structures, as well as the lack of the accountability of legal institutions and countries, which encodes the possibility for the countries to independently choose the mechanisms and national measures for the human rights policy implementation. The features of the effective European Human Rights activity – an adequate response to the significant social problems, flexible diplomacy, as well as legal and political initiatives – can be observed. The documents connected with the human rights issue ratified by the Visegrad countries often reveal a sort of distinction between the state and its citizens, as well as its citizens and people. The remnants of the communist relics and the weak current policies on human rights lead to the passivity of a civil society in the political discourse. The research of the participation of the Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary in international human rights missions/programs and organizations, has disclosed the tendency of the transformational period, i.e. the orientation towards the general context of the EU foreign policy.

Refugee resettlement is not new to EU member states. But the EU only accounts for about 10 percent of resettlements globally. Before the 2015 European Council decisions to relocate about 160,000 persons from Italy and Greece only half of EU Member States participated in resettlement programs. Relocation of refugees has emerged as a new form of resettlement as an EU reaction to the growing refugee influx. It is likely to become a permanent part of Common European Asylum Policy. The refugee emergency has intensified discussions about the application of the solidarity principle to pressure member states not yet engaged in relocation to contribute to the joint efforts of the EU. But this has created serious political controversy in many of the new (eastern) member states. The article outlines key elements of refugee resettlement and relocation that have recently emerged in the EU and discusses the prerequisites for the sustainable use of this tool in an unfavorable political and unclear legal environment, with particular focus on new member states. The main goal of the article is to identify factors that need to be considered for the design of sustainable resettlement and relocation programs, considering the aspects of political salience, legal conditions, burden-sharing, and member states' capacity. The case study of Lithuania presented in this article suggests that such programs need to be carefully considered and adequately funded as there are ample pitfalls which can quickly discredit the idea among the citizens.

Straipsnyje nagrinėjamas klausimas, ar įmanoma pateisinti žmogaus teisių egzistavimą nesiremiant metafizinėmis ir religinėmis žmogaus prigimties koncepcijomis. Aiškinamas moralės ir teisės, faktų ir vertybių, prigimtinės ir pozityvios teisės santykis. Teigiama, kad vienintelis teoriškai priimtinas žmogaus teisių pagrindas yra pozityvi moralė. Ši tezė eksplikuojama ir grindtiama kritiškai analizuojant galimus kontrargumentus.