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This review addresses human capacity for movement in the context of extreme loading and with it the combined effects of metabolic, biomechanical and gravitational stress on the human body. This topic encompasses extreme duration, as occurs in ultra-endurance competitions (e.g. adventure racing and transcontinental races) and expeditions (e.g. polar crossings), to the more gravitationally limited load carriage (e.g. in the military context). Juxtaposed to these circumstances is the extreme metabolic and mechanical unloading associated with space travel, prolonged bedrest and sedentary lifestyle, which may be at least as problematic, and are therefore included as a reference, e.g. when considering exposure, dangers and (mal)adaptations. As per the other reviews in this series, we describe the nature of the stress and the associated consequences; illustrate relevant regulations, including why and how they are set; present the pros and cons for self versus prescribed acute and chronic exposure; describe humans' (mal)adaptations; and finally suggest future directions for practice and research. In summary, we describe adaptation patterns that are often U or J shaped and that over time minimal or no load carriage decreases the global load carrying capacity and eventually leads to severe adverse effects and manifest disease under minimal absolute but high relative loads. We advocate that further understanding of load carrying capacity and the inherent mechanisms leading to adverse effects may advantageously be studied in this perspective. With improved access to insightful and portable technologies, there are some exciting possibilities to explore these questions in this context.

Allergic diseases often occur early in life and persist throughout life. This life-course perspective should be considered in allergen immunotherapy. In particular it is essential to understand whether this al treatment may be used in old age adults. The current paper was developed by a working group of AIRWAYS integrated care pathways for airways diseases, the model of chronic respiratory diseases of the European Innovation Partnership on active and healthy ageing (DG CONNECT and DG Santé). It considered (1) the political background, (2) the rationale for allergen immunotherapy across the life cycle, (3) the unmet needs for the treatment, in particular in preschool children and old age adults, (4) the strategic framework and the practical approach to synergize current initiatives in allergen immunotherapy, its mechanisms and the concept of active and healthy ageing.

Depending on how the future will unfold, today's progress in biotechnology research has greater or lesser potential to be the basis of subsequent innovation. Tracking progress against indicators for different future scenarios will help to focus, emphasize, or de-emphasize discovery research in a timely manner and to maximize the chance for successful innovation. In this paper, we show how learning scenarios with a 2050 time horizon help to recognize the implications of political and societal developments on the innovation potential of ongoing biotechnological research. We also propose a model to further increase open innovation between academia and the biotechnology value chain to help fundamental research explore discovery fields that have a greater chance to be valuable for applied research.

In Africa, milk production, processing and consumption are integral part of traditional food supply, with dairy products being a staple component of recommended healthy diets. This review provides an overview of the microbial safety characteristics of milk production and fermented dairy products in Africa. The object is to highlight the main microbial food safety hazards in the dairy chain and to propose appropriate preventive and control measures. Pathogens of public health concern including Mycobacterium bovis, Brucella abortus and Coxiella burnettii, which have largely been eradicated in many developed nations, still persist in the dairy chain in Africa. Factors such as the natural antimicrobial systems in milk and traditional processing technologies, including fermentation, heating and use of antimicrobial additives, that can potentially contribute to microbial safety of milk and dairy products in Africa will be discussed. Practical approaches to controlling safety hazards in the dairy chain in Africa have been proposed. Governmental regulatory bodies need to set the necessary national and regional safety standards, perform inspections and put measures in place to ensure that the standards are met, including strong enforcement programs within smallholder dairy chains. Dairy chain actors would require upgraded knowledge and training in preventive approaches such as good agricultural practices (GAP), hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP) design and implementation and good hygienic practices (GHPs). Food safety education programs should be incorporated into school curricula, beginning at the basic school levels, to improve food safety cognition among students and promote life-long safe food handling behaviour.

STUDY QUESTION: Can gonadotrophin receptor variants separately or in combination, be used for the prediction of pregnancy chances in in vitro fertilization (IVF) trials? SUMMARY ANSWER: The luteinizing hormone/human chorionic gonadotrophin receptor (LHCGR) variant N312S and the follicle-stimulating hormone receptor (FSHR) variant N680S can be utilized for the prediction of pregnancy chances in women undergoing IVF. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY: The FSHR N680S polymorphism has been shown to affect the ovarian response in response to gonadotrophin treatment, while no information is currently available regarding variants of the LHCGR in this context. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION: Cross-sectional study, duration from September 2010 to February 2015. Women undergoing IVF were consecutively enrolled and genetic variants compared between those who became pregnant and those who did not. The study was subsequently replicated in an independent sample. Granulosa cells from a subset of women were investigated regarding functionality of the genetic variants. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS: Women undergoing IVF (n = 384) were enrolled in the study and genotyped. Clinical variables were retrieved from medical records. For replication, an additional group of n = 233 women was utilized. Granulosa cells from n = 135 women were isolated by flow cytometry, stimulated with Follitropin alpha or Menotropin, and the downstream targets 3',5'-cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) measured with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE: Women homozygous for serine (S) in both polymorphisms displayed higher pregnancy rates than women homozygous asparagine (N) (OR = 14.4, 95% CI: [1.65, 126], P = 0.016). Higher pregnancy rates were also evident for women carrying LHCGR S312, regardless of FSHR variant (OR = 1.61, 95% CI: [1.13, 2.29], P = 0.008). These women required higher doses of FSH for follicle recruitment than women homozygous N (161 versus 148 IU, P = 0.030). When combining the study cohort with the replication cohort (n = 606), even stronger associations with pregnancy rates were noted for the combined genotypes (OR = 11.5, 95% CI: [1.86, 71.0], P = 0.009) and for women carrying LHCGR S312 (OR = 1.49, 95% CI: [1.14, 1.96], P = 0.004). A linear significant trend with pregnancy rate and increasing number of G alleles was also evident in the merged study population (OR = 1.34, 95% CI: [1.10, 1.64], P = 0.004). A lower cAMP response in granulosa cells was noted following Follitropin alpha stimulation for women homozygous N in both polymorphisms, compared with women with other genotypes (0.901 pmol cAMP/mg total protein versus 2.19 pmol cAMP/mg total protein, P = 0.035). LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION: Due to racial differences in LHCGR genotype distribution, these results may not be applicable for all populations. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS: Despite that >250 000 cycles of gonadotrophin stimulations are performed annually worldwide prior to IVF, it has not been possible to predict neither the pregnancy outcome, nor the response to the hormone with accuracy. If LHCGR and FSHR variants are recognized as biomarkers for chance of pregnancy, more individualized and thereby more efficient treatment modalities can be developed. STUDY FUNDING, COMPETING INTERESTS: This work was supported by Interreg IV A, EU (grant 167158) and ALF governments grant (F2014/354). Merck-Serono (Darmstadt, Germany) supported the enrollment of the subjects. The authors declare no conflict of interest.

The legislative process before the adoption of the revised European Union renewable energy directive mobilised various actors around the forest biomass issue in Europe. Which storylines do actors use to discuss and define the sustainability of forest biomass, how are the differences between the existing storylines explained, and can distinct 'discourse coalitions' of actors be observed as following each storyline? These questions are addressed through a discourse analysis to critically evaluate the debate around the utilisation of forest biomass for European renewable energy to identify persistent storylines adopted by discourse coalitions as they communicate their understanding of the issue, and compete to influence the policymaking and public perception. The hypotheses are that there are more than the hypothetical binary arrangement of pro versus anti storylines, and that some actors follow multiple storylines. Locating the methodological approach on the two dimensions; text versus context and critical versus constructivist, this study pays closer attention to context rather than on individual linguistic elements of texts. Regarding the second dimension, this study builds upon constructivist epistemology, being concerned with understanding which truths these storylines produce for their speakers, and their external influences upon alternative storylines and actors. The three storylines presented here represent three competing discourses regarding forest biomass usage in European renewable energy: forestry prioritised, climate focussed and critical. Each of these are promoted by actors aiming to gain discursive hegemony on the issue, both in terms of the impact of their discourse upon EU policy making and in the eyes of the public. Despite the discursive differences created by these deeply held opposing views of what sustainability and nature are and what this means for forest biomass, there were several points where narrative elements overlapped. These can provide insight for developing a more constructive debate on the sustainability of forest biomass.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) should be tackled through a One Health approach, as stated in the World Health Organization Global Action Plan on AMR. We describe the landscape of AMR surveillance in the European Union/European Economic Area (EU/EEA) and underline a gap regarding veterinary medicine. Current AMR surveillance efforts are of limited help to veterinary practitioners and policymakers seeking to improve antimicrobial stewardship in animal health. We propose to establish the European Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance network in Veterinary medicine (EARS-Vet) to report on the AMR situation, follow AMR trends and detect emerging AMR in selected bacterial pathogens of animals. This information could be useful to advise policymakers, explore efficacy of interventions, support antimicrobial stewardship initiatives, (re-)evaluate marketing authorisations of antimicrobials, generate epidemiological cut-off values, assess risk of zoonotic AMR transmission and evaluate the burden of AMR in animal health. EARS-Vet could be integrated with other AMR monitoring systems in the animal and medical sectors to ensure a One Health approach. Herein, we present a strategy to establish EARS-Vet as a network of national surveillance systems and highlight challenges of data harmonisation and bias. Strong political commitment at national and EU/EEA levels is required for the success of EARS-Vet.

Background: The increasing demand for raw or undercooked fish products, supplied by both aquaculture and fisheries, raises concerns about the transmission risk to humans of zoonotic fish parasites. This has led to the current European Union (EU) Regulation No 1276/2011 amending Annex III of Regulation (EC) No 853/2004 and mandating a freezing treatment of such products. Zoonotic parasites, particularly anisakid larvae, have been well documented in wild fish. Data on their presence in European aquaculture products, however, are still scarce, except for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), where the zoonotic risk was assessed as negligible, exempting it from freezing treatment. Aim: To evaluate the zoonotic Anisakidae parasite risk in European farmed marine fish other than Atlantic salmon. Methods: From 2016 to 2018 an observational parasitological survey was undertaken on 6,549 farmed fish including 2,753 gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata), 2,761 European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and 1,035 turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) from 14 farms in Italy, Spain and Greece. Furthermore, 200 rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) sea-caged in Denmark, as well as 352 seabream and 290 seabass imported in Italy and Spain from other countries were examined. Fish were subjected to visual inspection and candling. Fresh visceral organs/fillet samples were artificially digested or UV pressed and visually examined for zoonotic anisakid larvae. Results: No zoonotic parasites were found in any of the fish investigated. Conclusions: The risk linked to zoonotic Anisakidae in the examined fish species from European mariculture appears negligible. This study laid the groundwork for considerations to amend the current EU regulation.

Background: The prevalence of latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) is vastly higher than that of tuberculosis (TB) disease and this enormous reservoir of individuals with LTBI impacts the global TB control strategy. Adolescents are at greatest risk of TB infection and are thus an ideal target population for a potential effective TB vaccine to be added to the current BCG programme as it could reduce the number of latent infections and consequently the number of adults with TB disease. However, LTBI rates are often unknown for this population. This study aims to estimate the magnitude of LTBI and to determine if Tanzanian adolescents would be a good population for a prevention of TB infection trial. Methods: This was a descriptive cross-sectional study that recruited 193 adolescents aged 12 and 16 years from government schools and directly from the community in Mwanza Region, Tanzania. Socio-demographic characteristics were collected for all enrolled participants. Blood was drawn and tested using QuantiFERON-TB Gold In-Tube (QFT-GIT), and Early Secretory Antigenic Target-6-Free Interferon-gamma Release Assay (ESAT-6 free IGRA). Concordance between QFT-GIT and ESAT-6 free IGRA was evaluated using the McNemar's test. Results: Overall estimates of LTBI prevalence were 19.2% [95%CI, 14.1; 25.2] and 18.6% [95%CI, 13.6; 24.6] as measured by QFT-GIT IGRA and ESAT-6 free IGRA, respectively. The 16-year-old cohort had a higher LTBI prevalence (23.7% [95%CI, 16.1; 32.9]) as compared to 12-year-old cohort (14.6% [95%CI, 8.6; 22.7]) as measured by QFT-GIT IGRA. When measured by ESAT-6 Free IGRA, LTBI prevalence was 24.7% (95%CI, 16.9; 34.0) for the 16-year-old cohort and 12.5% (95%CI, 7.0; 20.3) among the 12-year-old cohort. According to both tests the prevalence of TB infection and the corresponding annual risk of tuberculosis infection (ARTI) and force of infection were high and increased with age. Of all enrolled participants, 97.4% had concordant results for QFT-GIT IGRA and ESAT-6 free IGRA ( p = 0.65). Conclusions: The prevalence of LTBI and the associated ARTI and force of infection among adolescents is high and increases with age in Mwanza Region. There was a high concordance between the QFT-GIT and the novel ESAT-6 free IGRA assays. These findings suggest Mwanza is a promising area to conduct novel TB vaccine research prevention of infection (POI) studies targeting adolescents.

STUDY QUESTION: What are women's perceptions and experience of fertility assessment and counselling 6 years after attending a Fertility Assessment and Counselling (FAC) clinic in Denmark? SUMMARY ANSWER: Women viewed the personalized fertility knowledge and advice they received as important aids to decision-making and they felt the benefits outweighed the risks of receiving personalized fertility information. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY: Many young people wish to become parents in the future. However, research demonstrates there is a gap in women's and men's knowledge of fertility and suggests they may be making fertility decisions based on inaccurate information. Experts have called for the development of interventions to increase fertility awareness so that men and women can make informed fertility decisions and achieve their family-building goals. Since 2011, the FAC clinic in Copenhagen, Denmark has provided personalized fertility assessment and guidance based on clinical examination and evaluation of individual risk factors. Available qualitative research showed that attending the FAC clinic increased fertility awareness and knowledge and was experienced as a catalyst for change (e.g. starting to conceive, pursuing fertility treatment, ending a relationship) in women 1-year post-consultation. STUDY DESIGN SIZE DURATION: The study was a 6-year follow-up qualitative study of 24 women who attended the FAC clinic between January and June 2012. All women were interviewed during a 2-month period from February to March 2018 at Rigshospitalet, their home or office, in Copenhagen, Denmark. Interviews were held in English and ranged between 60 and 94 min (mean 73 min). PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS SETTING METHODS: Invitations to participate in an interview-based follow-up study were sent to 141 women who attended the FAC clinic in 2012. In total, 95 women read the invitation, 35 confirmed interest in participating and 16 declined to participate. Twenty-five interviews were booked and 24 interviews held. Interviews followed a semi-structured format regarding reasons for attending the FAC clinic, if/how their needs were met, and perceptions of fertility assessment and counselling. Data were analysed using thematic analysis. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE: At the follow-up interview, women were on average 39.5 years old. Ten were currently single or dating and 14 were married/cohabiting. All were childless when they attended the FAC clinic. At the follow-up interview, 21 women were parents (14 women with one child; 6 with two children; 1 with three children) and the remaining three women intended to have children in the future. The most common reason for originally attending the FAC clinic was to determine how long they could delay childbearing. Most of the women now believed their needs for attending had been met. Those who were dissatisfied cited a desire for more exact ('concrete') information as to their remaining years of fertility, although acknowledged that this was likely not realistic. Women stated that they had felt reassured as to their fertility status after attending the FAC clinic whilst receiving the message that they could not delay childbearing 'too long'. Women viewed personalized fertility knowledge as an important aid to decision-making but cautioned about developing a false sense of security about their fertility and chance of conceiving in the future based on the results. Although women were generally satisfied with their experience, they wished for more time to discuss options and to receive additional guidance after their initial meeting at the FAC clinic. LIMITATIONS REASONS FOR CAUTION: Participants were from a group of Danish women attending the FAC clinic and interviews were conducted in English, which means they are not representative of all reproductive-aged women. Nevertheless, the study group included a broad spectrum of women who achieved parenthood through different means (heterosexual/lesbian relationship, single parent with donor, co-parent) with various family sizes, and women who were currently childless. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS: Our study provides support for an individualized approach to fertility education, assessment and counselling provided at a time when the information is relevant to the individual and their current fertility decision-making. The findings suggest that although satisfied with their visit to the FAC clinic, the women wished for more information and guidance after this visit, suggesting that the current intervention may need to be expanded or new interventions developed to meet these additional needs. STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTERESTS: E.K. was funded by an ESHRE Travel/Training grant by ReproUnion, co-financed by the European Union, Interreg V OKS. J.B. reports that the risk evaluation form used at the Fertility Assessment Clinic was inspired by the Fertility Status Awareness Tool FertiSTAT that was developed at Cardiff University for self-assessment of reproductive risk. J.B. also reports personal fees from Merck KGaA, Merck AB, Theramex, Ferring Pharmaceuticals A/S and a research grant from Merck Serono Ltd outside the submitted work. A.N.A. has received personal fees from both Merck Pharmaceuticals and Ferring and grants from Roche Diagnostics outside the submitted work. The other authors report no conflicts of interest.

We investigate the state of multilingualism across the social sciences and humanities (SSH) using a comprehensive data set of research outputs from seven European countries (Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Flanders [Belgium], Norway, Poland, and Slovenia). Although English tends to be the dominant language of science, SSH researchers often produce culturally and societally relevant work in their local languages. We collected and analyzed a set of 164,218 peer‐reviewed journal articles (produced by 51,063 researchers from 2013 to 2015) and found that multilingualism is prevalent despite geographical location and field. Among the researchers who published at least three journal articles during this time period, over one‐third from the various countries had written their work in at least two languages. The highest share of researchers who published in only one language were from Flanders (80.9%), whereas the lowest shares were from Slovenia (57.2%) and Poland (59.3%). Our findings show that multilingual publishing is an ongoing practice in many SSH research fields regardless of geographical location, political situation, and/or historical heritage. Here we argue that research is international, but multilingual publishing keeps locally relevant research alive with the added potential for creating impact.

We present a high-resolution cross-disciplinary analysis of kinship structure and social institutions in two Late Copper Age Bell Beaker culture cemeteries of South Germany containing 24 and 18 burials, of which 34 provided genetic information. By combining archaeological, anthropological, genetic and isotopic evidence we are able to document the internal kinship and residency structure of the cemeteries and the socially organizing principles of these local communities. The buried individuals represent four to six generations of two family groups, one nuclear family at the Alburg cemetery, and one seemingly more extended at Irlbach. While likely monogamous, they practiced exogamy, as six out of eight non-locals are women. Maternal genetic diversity is high with 23 different mitochondrial haplotypes from 34 individuals, whereas all males belong to one single Y-chromosome haplogroup without any detectable contribution from Y-chromosomes typical of the farmers who had been the sole inhabitants of the region hundreds of years before. This provides evidence for the society being patrilocal, perhaps as a way of protecting property among the male line, while in-marriage from many different places secured social and political networks and prevented inbreeding. We also find evidence that the communities practiced selection for which of their children (aged 0-14 years) received a proper burial, as buried juveniles were in all but one case boys, suggesting the priority of young males in the cemeteries. This is plausibly linked to the exchange of foster children as part of an expansionist kinship system which is well attested from later Indo-European-speaking cultural groups.

Properties and composition of honey are essential in providing information regarding their quality as well as in their differentiation based on production region characteristics, e.g., floral sources.This paper presents physicochemical properties and floral sources (botanical origin) of 21 honey samples obtained from arid and semiarid areas of Kenya, specifically, West Pokot, Baringo, and Kitui Counties. Physicochemical parameters which were analyzed to determine honey quality included moisture content, hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), diastase activity, free acidity, and electrical conductivity.Values of these parameterswere compared with those of the existing local, regional, and international standards for honey.Melissopalynological analysis (pollen analysis) was also carried out to provide information on botanical origin of the honeys. Results showed mean parameter values of moisture, 16.34%; HMF, 23.28mg/kg; diastase activity, 10.67 Schade units; free acidity, 22.95meq/kg; and electrical conductivity, 0.40mS/cm. Free acidity and electrical conductivity values of honey samples obtained fromWest Pokot were significantly lower than the values of honeys from Baringo and Kitui. Eighteen (18) honey samples had all parameter values within the limits set in the East African, Codex Alimentarius, and the European Union directive standards for honey. Results also showed a total of 29 pollen types in the honey samples analyzed, and Acacia spp. was the predominant pollen type in 4 of the 21 honey samples. Findings of this study showed that Kenyan origin honeys can tap into the existing regional and international markets based on their quality which can be attributed to their botanical origin. Results of this study also suggested that honey producers have undertaken appropriate measures in honey harvesting, processing, handling, and storage. However, there is a need to build capacity of producers whose honeywere of unacceptable quality. This would involve training on proper honey production, processing, and handling practices as well establishment of honey collection and processing centres at the local level in order to improve honey quality.This will enhance access to existing honey markets. Conservation of bee floral sources would also be needed to maintain honey quality. ; Properties and composition of honey are essential in providing information regarding their quality as well as in their differentiation based on production region characteristics, e.g., floral sources.This paper presents physicochemical properties and floral sources (botanical origin) of 21 honey samples obtained from arid and semiarid areas of Kenya, specifically, West Pokot, Baringo, and Kitui Counties. Physicochemical parameters which were analyzed to determine honey quality included moisture content, hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), diastase activity, free acidity, and electrical conductivity.Values of these parameterswere compared with those of the existing local, regional, and international standards for honey.Melissopalynological analysis (pollen analysis) was also carried out to provide information on botanical origin of the honeys. Results showed mean parameter values of moisture, 16.34%; HMF, 23.28mg/kg; diastase activity, 10.67 Schade units; free acidity, 22.95meq/kg; and electrical conductivity, 0.40mS/cm. Free acidity and electrical conductivity values of honey samples obtained fromWest Pokot were significantly lower than the values of honeys from Baringo and Kitui. Eighteen (18) honey samples had all parameter values within the limits set in the East African, Codex Alimentarius, and the European Union directive standards for honey. Results also showed a total of 29 pollen types in the honey samples analyzed, and Acacia spp. was the predominant pollen type in 4 of the 21 honey samples. Findings of this study showed that Kenyan origin honeys can tap into the existing regional and international markets based on their quality which can be attributed to their botanical origin. Results of this study also suggested that honey producers have undertaken appropriate measures in honey harvesting, processing, handling, and storage. However, there is a need to build capacity of producers whose honeywere of unacceptable quality. This would involve training on proper honey production, processing, and handling practices as well establishment of honey collection and processing centres at the local level in order to improve honey quality.This will enhance access to existing honey markets. Conservation of bee floral sources would also be needed to maintain honey quality.

Abstract: Serving in the military leads to mental diseases, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), for a percentage of soldiers globally. The number of veterans with PTSD is increasing and, although medication and psychological treatments are offered, treatment results could be improved. Historically, ifferent forms of nature-based therapy have been used for this target group. However, in spite of anecdotally good results, studies measuring the effect of this form of therapy are still lacking. The aim of this study is to explore how veterans with PTSD manage their everyday lives during and after a ten-week nature-based intervention in a therapy garden. Methods: Eight veterans participated in qualitative interviews, which were conducted during a one-year period and were analyzed using interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA). Results: Five themes emerged from the IPA analysis: Bodily symptoms; relationships; building new identities; the future; and lessons learned. All the participating veterans gained a greater insight into and mastering of their condition, achieved better control of their lives, and developed tools to handle life situations more appropriately and to build a new identity. This improved their ability to participate in social activities and employment. Conclusion: The results should be considered in the future treatment of veterans with PTSD.

Ecosystem research focuses on goods and services, thereby ascribing beneficial values to the ecosystems. Depending on the context, however, outputs from ecosystems can be both positive and negative. We examined how provisioning services of wild animals and plants can switch between being services and disservices. We studied agricultural communities in Laos to illustrate when and why these switches take place. Government restrictions on land use combined with economic and cultural changes have created perceptions of rodents and plants as problem species in some communities. In other communities that are maintaining shifting cultivation practices, the very same taxa were perceived as beneficial. We propose conversion factors that in a given context can determine where an individual taxon is located along a spectrum from ecosystem service to disservice, when, and for whom. We argue that the omission of disservices in ecosystem service accounts may lead governments to direct investments at inappropriate targets.